🚦Police and Society Unit 12 – Contemporary Issues in Policing

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Policing encompasses the activities of law enforcement agencies and officers to maintain public order, prevent and detect crime, and enforce laws
• Community policing is a philosophy that promotes organizational strategies to support the systematic use of partnerships and problem-solving techniques
  • Proactive approach to address the immediate conditions that give rise to public safety issues such as crime, social disorder, and fear of crime
• Procedural justice focuses on the perceived fairness of the processes involved in decision-making and the treatment of individuals by authority figures
  • Four key principles: voice, neutrality, respect, and trustworthiness
• Racial profiling is the discriminatory practice by law enforcement officials of targeting individuals for suspicion of crime based on their race, ethnicity, religion, or national origin
• Use of force continuum is a model that outlines the escalation of force that police officers may use in response to a subject's actions
  • Ranges from verbal commands to lethal force
• De-escalation techniques are strategies used by law enforcement to reduce the intensity of a potentially volatile situation and minimize the need for force
  • Includes active listening, empathy, and clear communication
• Implicit bias refers to the attitudes or stereotypes that affect our understanding, actions, and decisions unconsciously
  • Can lead to disparate treatment and outcomes in policing

Historical Context of Policing

• Modern policing has its roots in the 19th century with the establishment of the London Metropolitan Police by Sir Robert Peel in 1829
  • Introduced the concept of preventive policing and the "Peelian Principles" which emphasize the importance of public approval and cooperation
• In the United States, early policing was influenced by the "watchmen" system and the slave patrols in the South
• The professionalization of policing began in the early 20th century with the introduction of formal training, standardized practices, and the adoption of new technologies
  • August Vollmer, known as the "father of modern policing," played a key role in promoting police professionalism and education
• The 1960s and 1970s saw a shift towards community policing and problem-oriented policing in response to the civil rights movement and social unrest
• The "broken windows" theory, introduced by James Q. Wilson and George L. Kelling in 1982, argued that addressing minor crimes and disorder could prevent more serious crimes
  • Influenced policing strategies such as "zero tolerance" and "stop, question, and frisk"
• The 1990s and 2000s witnessed a focus on data-driven policing and the use of technology to enhance crime analysis and deployment strategies (CompStat)

Current Challenges in Law Enforcement

• Balancing crime control and community trust in an era of increased public scrutiny and demand for transparency
• Addressing racial disparities in policing practices and outcomes
  • Concerns about racial profiling, excessive use of force, and disproportionate impact on communities of color
• Managing the mental health crisis and responding to individuals in crisis
  • Need for specialized training and partnerships with mental health professionals
• Combating the opioid epidemic and its impact on public safety and community well-being
• Responding to the evolving threat of cybercrime and the need for technological expertise
• Addressing the recruitment and retention challenges in a changing workforce
  • Need to attract diverse candidates and provide competitive compensation and benefits
• Navigating the political landscape and maintaining operational independence
• Adapting to the changing expectations and demands of the public in the digital age

Police-Community Relations

• Building trust and legitimacy is essential for effective policing and requires ongoing effort and engagement
• Community policing strategies emphasize collaboration, problem-solving, and proactive partnerships with the community
  • Includes foot patrols, neighborhood watch programs, and youth outreach initiatives
• Procedural justice practices can enhance public trust and cooperation by treating individuals with fairness, respect, and transparency
• Effective communication and public information sharing are crucial for maintaining positive relationships and managing crises
• Addressing the "us vs. them" mentality and promoting a culture of service and guardianship within law enforcement
• Engaging in community dialogue and listening sessions to understand the needs and concerns of diverse communities
• Implementing community oversight and civilian review boards to enhance accountability and transparency
• Collaborating with community organizations and leaders to address underlying social issues and promote public safety

Technological Advancements in Policing

• The use of body-worn cameras has become widespread to enhance transparency, accountability, and evidence collection
  • Requires policies and procedures for activation, retention, and release of footage
• Predictive policing software uses data analytics to identify crime patterns and allocate resources proactively
  • Raises concerns about potential bias and the need for human oversight
• Automated license plate readers (ALPRs) enable rapid scanning and comparison of vehicle license plates for investigative purposes
• Facial recognition technology is used to identify suspects and persons of interest but raises privacy and accuracy concerns
• Drones and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are used for surveillance, search and rescue, and crime scene documentation
• Social media monitoring is used to gather intelligence, investigate crimes, and engage with the public
  • Requires balancing public safety with individual privacy rights
• Next-generation 911 systems enable the transmission of text, images, and video to enhance emergency response
• Cybersecurity measures are essential to protect sensitive data and prevent hacking and cyber attacks

Ethical Considerations and Accountability

• Policing requires a high level of integrity, professionalism, and adherence to ethical standards
• The use of force must be reasonable, necessary, and proportional to the threat faced
  • Officers are accountable for their actions and must be able to articulate the justification for using force
• Bias-free policing is essential to ensure fair and equitable treatment of all individuals regardless of race, ethnicity, or other protected characteristics
• Procedural justice principles should guide interactions with the public to enhance legitimacy and trust
• Confidentiality and privacy rights must be protected in the handling of sensitive information and data
• Whistleblower protections and reporting mechanisms are necessary to address misconduct and corruption
• Regular training on ethics, de-escalation, and cultural competency is essential for maintaining high standards of conduct
• Independent oversight and investigation of police misconduct complaints enhance accountability and public trust

Reform Initiatives and Future Trends

• Calls for police reform have intensified in recent years, particularly in the wake of high-profile incidents of police misconduct and racial injustice
• Initiatives such as "8 Can't Wait" and "Campaign Zero" have proposed specific policy changes to reduce police violence and increase accountability
  • Includes banning chokeholds, requiring de-escalation, and mandating warning before shooting
• Some jurisdictions have implemented civilian oversight boards and independent investigation of police misconduct
• There is a growing emphasis on diversifying the police workforce to better reflect the communities served
• Training on implicit bias, de-escalation, and mental health crisis intervention is becoming more prevalent
• Restorative justice practices are being explored as an alternative to traditional punitive approaches
• The concept of "defunding the police" has gained traction, with proponents arguing for reallocating resources to social services and community-based programs
• There is a recognition of the need to address the root causes of crime and social disorder through a public health approach
• The future of policing may involve a greater emphasis on community partnerships, problem-solving, and evidence-based practices

Case Studies and Real-World Examples

• The shooting of Michael Brown in Ferguson, Missouri (2014) and the subsequent protests and unrest highlighted issues of racial profiling, excessive force, and militarization of police
• The arrest and death of Freddie Gray in Baltimore (2015) led to widespread protests and a federal investigation into the Baltimore Police Department's practices
• The shooting of Philando Castile in Minnesota (2016) and the acquittal of the officer involved sparked national outrage and discussions about racial bias in policing
• The arrest and death of George Floyd in Minneapolis (2020) ignited global protests and calls for police reform and racial justice
  • Led to the conviction of the officer involved and prompted widespread policy changes and discussions about systemic racism in policing
• The shooting of Breonna Taylor in Louisville, Kentucky (2020) during a "no-knock" warrant served by plainclothes officers raised questions about the use of such warrants and the need for transparency
• The shooting of Jacob Blake in Kenosha, Wisconsin (2020) and the subsequent protests and civil unrest highlighted the ongoing tensions between police and communities of color
• The Capitol riot in Washington, D.C. (2021) and the response of law enforcement raised concerns about disparities in the treatment of protesters and the need for consistent application of the law
• The use of facial recognition technology by the Baltimore Police Department (2020) without public knowledge or oversight raised concerns about privacy and the need for transparency in the use of surveillance technologies