💪Physiology of Motivated Behaviors Unit 10 – Emotions and Emotional Regulation

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Emotion encompasses subjective experience, physiological responses, and behavioral expressions
• Affect refers to the subjective feeling component of emotion (pleasure, displeasure)
• Valence describes the positive or negative character of an emotion
• Arousal indicates the level of activation or intensity of an emotion
• Mood is a prolonged emotional state that influences cognitive processes and behavior
• Emotional regulation involves strategies to modulate the intensity, duration, and expression of emotions
• Alexithymia is a condition characterized by difficulty identifying and describing one's own emotions
• Emotional intelligence includes the ability to perceive, understand, and manage emotions effectively

Biological Basis of Emotions

• Emotions have evolutionary origins in promoting survival and reproductive success
• The limbic system, particularly the amygdala, plays a central role in emotional processing
• Neurotransmitters such as serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine modulate emotional experiences
• Hormones like cortisol and oxytocin influence stress responses and social bonding, respectively
• The autonomic nervous system (sympathetic and parasympathetic) regulates physiological arousal during emotional states
• Facial expressions of emotion are largely universal across cultures, suggesting a biological basis
• Genetics contribute to individual differences in emotional reactivity and regulation
  • Twin studies indicate heritability of emotional traits (neuroticism, extraversion)

Neural Circuits and Brain Regions Involved

• The amygdala is critical for detecting and responding to emotionally salient stimuli, especially threats
  • Lesions to the amygdala can impair fear conditioning and recognition of facial expressions
• The prefrontal cortex (PFC) is involved in top-down regulation of emotional responses
  • The ventromedial PFC is associated with emotional decision-making and social cognition
  • The dorsolateral PFC is implicated in cognitive control and emotion regulation strategies
• The anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) integrates emotional and cognitive processes, contributing to emotional awareness and regulation
• The insula is involved in interoceptive awareness and the subjective experience of emotions
• The hippocampus is important for forming emotional memories and contextual associations
• The hypothalamus regulates neuroendocrine responses and autonomic arousal during emotional states
• Subcortical structures like the periaqueductal gray (PAG) mediate defensive behaviors and pain modulation

Theories of Emotion

• James-Lange Theory proposes that physiological arousal precedes and causes the subjective experience of emotion
• Cannon-Bard Theory suggests that physiological arousal and subjective experience occur simultaneously
• Schachter-Singer Theory emphasizes the role of cognitive appraisal in interpreting physiological arousal as a specific emotion
• Appraisal Theories focus on how individuals evaluate the significance of events for their well-being
• Dimensional Theories describe emotions along continuous dimensions such as valence and arousal
• Discrete Emotion Theories propose that there are basic, universal emotions (happiness, sadness, fear, anger, disgust, surprise)
• Constructionist Theories view emotions as constructed from more basic psychological ingredients (core affect, conceptual knowledge)

Types and Classification of Emotions

• Basic emotions are considered innate, universal, and have distinct neural and physiological signatures (happiness, sadness, fear, anger, disgust, surprise)
• Self-conscious emotions involve self-evaluation and social appraisal (shame, guilt, pride, embarrassment)
• Moral emotions guide ethical behavior and social cooperation (compassion, gratitude, contempt, indignation)
• Aesthetic emotions are evoked by art, music, and natural beauty (awe, wonder, sublimity, nostalgia)
• Positive emotions broaden thought-action repertoires and build personal resources (joy, interest, contentment, love)
  • The broaden-and-build theory suggests that positive emotions have evolutionary advantages by promoting exploration and social bonding
• Negative emotions narrow attention and mobilize resources for coping with threats or losses (fear, anger, sadness, disgust)
• Complex emotions arise from blends or sequences of basic emotions (jealousy, love, hope, despair)

Emotional Regulation Strategies

• Situation selection involves choosing or avoiding situations based on their emotional impact
• Situation modification refers to efforts to change a situation to alter its emotional significance
• Attentional deployment includes strategies like distraction, concentration, and rumination
• Cognitive change involves reappraising or reinterpreting the meaning of a situation
  • Reappraisal is an effective strategy for downregulating negative emotions and increasing positive emotions
• Response modulation refers to directly influencing physiological, experiential, or behavioral components of the emotional response
  • Expressive suppression involves inhibiting emotional expressions but may have negative consequences (increased physiological arousal, reduced positive affect)
• Mindfulness-based strategies emphasize non-judgmental awareness and acceptance of emotional experiences
• Emotion regulation can be automatic (implicit) or controlled (explicit)
• Effective emotion regulation is associated with better mental health outcomes and social functioning

Measuring and Assessing Emotions

• Self-report measures include questionnaires, rating scales, and experience sampling methods
  • The Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) assesses the frequency of positive and negative emotions
  • The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) measures both current and general levels of anxiety
• Behavioral observations involve coding facial expressions, vocal characteristics, and body language
  • The Facial Action Coding System (FACS) is a comprehensive tool for analyzing facial muscle movements
• Physiological measures capture autonomic and neuroendocrine responses (heart rate, skin conductance, cortisol levels)
• Brain imaging techniques (fMRI, EEG, PET) reveal neural correlates of emotional processing and regulation
• Implicit measures assess automatic emotional associations and biases (Implicit Association Test, affective priming)
• Ecological momentary assessment (EMA) involves repeated sampling of emotions in real-time, natural contexts
• Multimodal assessment integrates self-report, behavioral, physiological, and neural measures for a comprehensive understanding of emotional processes

Emotions in Social Contexts

• Emotional contagion refers to the automatic spread of emotions between individuals
• Empathy involves understanding and sharing the emotions of others
  • Cognitive empathy is the ability to take another's perspective and infer their emotional state
  • Affective empathy is the capacity to share or experience similar emotions as another person
• Emotional support from others can buffer stress and promote well-being
• Emotional labor refers to the management of emotions as part of one's job (service industry, healthcare)
• Cultural norms and display rules shape the expression and regulation of emotions in social contexts
• Interpersonal emotion regulation involves strategies to influence the emotions of others (social sharing, co-rumination)
• Emotions play a key role in attachment, social bonding, and relationship satisfaction
• Emotional intelligence contributes to effective social functioning and leadership

Disorders Related to Emotional Dysregulation

• Mood disorders (major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder) are characterized by persistent disturbances in emotional states
• Anxiety disorders (generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, phobias) involve excessive fear and worry
• Trauma and stressor-related disorders (post-traumatic stress disorder, acute stress disorder) develop in response to traumatic events
• Personality disorders (borderline personality disorder, antisocial personality disorder) are associated with emotional instability and interpersonal difficulties
• Substance use disorders often co-occur with emotional disorders and may involve attempts to self-medicate or cope with negative emotions
• Eating disorders (anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa) are linked to emotional disturbances and maladaptive emotion regulation strategies
• Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder is a childhood condition characterized by severe, chronic irritability and temper outbursts
• Alexithymia, a difficulty identifying and describing emotions, is a transdiagnostic risk factor for various emotional disorders

Applications and Interventions

• Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) targets maladaptive thoughts and behaviors related to emotional distress
  • CBT techniques include cognitive restructuring, exposure therapy, and behavioral activation
• Dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) emphasizes mindfulness, distress tolerance, emotion regulation, and interpersonal effectiveness skills
• Emotion-focused therapy (EFT) aims to enhance emotional awareness, expression, and transformation
• Mindfulness-based interventions (MBSR, MBCT) cultivate present-moment awareness and non-judgmental acceptance of emotional experiences
• Biofeedback training helps individuals learn to regulate physiological responses associated with emotions
• Expressive writing interventions involve writing about emotional experiences to promote emotional processing and coping
• Social and emotional learning (SEL) programs in schools foster emotional competencies and resilience in children and adolescents
• Workplace wellness initiatives address emotional well-being and stress management in occupational settings
• Technology-based interventions (mobile apps, virtual reality) offer accessible tools for emotional support and skill-building