🧊People of the Arctic Unit 6 – Arctic Governance and Politics

Key Arctic Regions and Populations

• The Arctic is defined as the region above the Arctic Circle (66°33′ N), which includes parts of eight countries: Canada, Denmark (Greenland), Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden, and the United States (Alaska)
• The Arctic Ocean is the smallest and shallowest of the world's five major oceans, covering approximately 5.4 million square miles
• The Arctic is home to diverse ecosystems, including tundra, boreal forests, and marine environments
• Indigenous peoples have inhabited the Arctic for thousands of years, with distinct cultures and languages
  • Examples of Arctic indigenous groups include the Inuit (Canada, Greenland, and Alaska), Sámi (Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Russia), and Aleut (Alaska and Russia)
• The total population of the Arctic is approximately 4 million people, with a significant proportion being indigenous
• Urban centers in the Arctic, such as Tromsø (Norway), Reykjavik (Iceland), and Murmansk (Russia), serve as hubs for economic, political, and cultural activities
• The Arctic's population is unevenly distributed, with some regions being sparsely populated while others have higher concentrations of people

Historical Context of Arctic Governance

• The Arctic has been a region of interest for centuries, with early exploration driven by the search for trade routes and resources
• The concept of Arctic sovereignty emerged in the early 20th century, as nations sought to establish their claims to the region
  • The Sector Principle, proposed by Canada in 1907, aimed to divide the Arctic into sectors based on meridians of longitude extending from each country's coastline to the North Pole
• The Cold War period (1947-1991) saw the Arctic become a strategic theater for the United States and the Soviet Union, with military buildup and nuclear deterrence being primary concerns
• The end of the Cold War marked a shift towards increased international cooperation in the Arctic, as evidenced by the formation of the Arctic Council in 1996
• The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), which came into force in 1994, provides a legal framework for governing the world's oceans, including the Arctic Ocean
  • UNCLOS allows coastal states to claim exclusive economic zones (EEZs) extending 200 nautical miles from their shores, as well as the potential to extend their continental shelf claims beyond this limit
• Climate change has emerged as a critical factor in Arctic governance, with the region experiencing warming at twice the global average rate, leading to decreased sea ice cover and increased accessibility

International Arctic Organizations and Treaties

• The Arctic Council, established in 1996, is the leading intergovernmental forum for promoting cooperation, coordination, and interaction among the Arctic states, indigenous communities, and other inhabitants on common Arctic issues
  • The Arctic Council has eight member states: Canada, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden, and the United States
  • Six indigenous organizations have permanent participant status: the Aleut International Association, the Arctic Athabaskan Council, the Gwich'in Council International, the Inuit Circumpolar Council, the Russian Association of Indigenous Peoples of the North, and the Saami Council
• The Barents Euro-Arctic Council (BEAC), founded in 1993, is a forum for intergovernmental cooperation on issues concerning the Barents Region, which includes parts of Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Russia
• The Northern Forum, established in 1991, is a non-profit, international organization composed of sub-national or regional governments from eight northern countries, aiming to improve the quality of life of Northern peoples
• The Ilulissat Declaration, signed in 2008 by the five Arctic coastal states (Canada, Denmark, Norway, Russia, and the United States), affirmed their commitment to the existing legal framework for governing the Arctic Ocean and their desire to work together to address emerging issues
• The Agreement on Cooperation on Aeronautical and Maritime Search and Rescue in the Arctic, signed by the eight Arctic Council member states in 2011, is the first legally binding agreement negotiated under the auspices of the Arctic Council
• The Agreement on Cooperation on Marine Oil Pollution Preparedness and Response in the Arctic, signed in 2013, aims to strengthen cooperation, coordination, and mutual assistance among the Arctic states in the event of an oil pollution incident

National Arctic Policies and Strategies

• Each of the eight Arctic states has developed its own national policies and strategies for the region, reflecting their unique interests, priorities, and challenges
• Canada's Arctic and Northern Policy Framework, released in 2019, focuses on strengthening Arctic and Northern communities, promoting sustainable economic development, protecting the environment, and defending Canadian sovereignty
• The Kingdom of Denmark's Strategy for the Arctic 2011-2020 emphasizes sustainable growth and development, environmental protection, and international cooperation
• Finland's Strategy for the Arctic Region, updated in 2016, prioritizes sustainable development, economic opportunities, and international cooperation
• Iceland's Parliamentary Resolution on Iceland's Arctic Policy, adopted in 2011, emphasizes the importance of the Arctic Council, sustainable development, and international cooperation
• Norway's Arctic Strategy, updated in 2017, focuses on international cooperation, business development, knowledge development, infrastructure, environmental protection, and emergency preparedness
• The Russian Federation's Strategy for the Development of the Arctic Zone and the Provision of National Security until 2035, approved in 2020, emphasizes socio-economic development, infrastructure, environmental protection, and national security
• Sweden's Strategy for the Arctic Region, adopted in 2011, prioritizes climate and the environment, economic development, and the human dimension
• The United States' National Strategy for the Arctic Region, released in 2013, emphasizes security, stewardship, and international cooperation

Indigenous Rights and Self-Governance

• Indigenous peoples have inhabited the Arctic for thousands of years and have developed unique cultures, languages, and traditional knowledge systems
• The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP), adopted in 2007, affirms the rights of indigenous peoples to self-determination, land, resources, and cultural identity
  • All eight Arctic states have endorsed UNDRIP, although the extent to which it has been implemented varies
• The Inuit Circumpolar Council (ICC), founded in 1977, represents the interests of Inuit in Canada, Greenland, Alaska, and Chukotka (Russia), promoting Inuit rights, culture, and environmental protection
• The Sámi Parliament, established in Finland (1973), Norway (1989), and Sweden (1993), is the representative body for the Sámi people, dealing with matters related to Sámi language, culture, and way of life
• Land claims agreements and self-government arrangements have been negotiated between indigenous peoples and national governments in several Arctic regions
  • Examples include the Nunavut Land Claims Agreement (1993) in Canada, which led to the creation of the Nunavut territory and government, and the Finnmark Act (2005) in Norway, which transferred ownership of land to the Sámi people
• The incorporation of traditional knowledge in decision-making processes is increasingly recognized as essential for effective Arctic governance and sustainable development
• The Arctic Council's permanent participant status for indigenous organizations ensures their active involvement in the Council's work and decision-making processes

Environmental Challenges and Management

• The Arctic is experiencing rapid environmental changes due to climate change, with impacts on sea ice, permafrost, biodiversity, and local communities
• Rising temperatures have led to decreased sea ice cover, which has implications for marine ecosystems, shipping routes, and resource extraction
  • The minimum extent of Arctic sea ice has decreased by approximately 13% per decade since 1979
• Thawing permafrost poses risks to infrastructure, releases greenhouse gases, and alters local ecosystems and hydrology
• Changes in the timing and extent of sea ice have impacts on the migration patterns and habitat of Arctic species, such as polar bears, walruses, and seals
• The Arctic Council's Working Groups, such as the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP) and the Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna (CAFF), conduct research and provide scientific advice on environmental issues
• The Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy (AEPS), adopted in 1991, was a precursor to the Arctic Council and focused on addressing environmental threats and promoting sustainable development
• The Arctic Climate Impact Assessment (ACIA), published in 2004, was a comprehensive study of the impacts of climate change in the Arctic, commissioned by the Arctic Council
• Ecosystem-based management approaches, which consider the complex interactions between humans and the environment, are increasingly being applied in the Arctic to balance conservation and sustainable use of resources

Resource Exploitation and Economic Development

• The Arctic is rich in natural resources, including oil, gas, minerals, and fish, which have attracted increasing interest from governments and industries
• Offshore oil and gas exploration and production have been ongoing in the Arctic for decades, with significant reserves identified in the Arctic Ocean
  • The U.S. Geological Survey estimates that the Arctic may contain 13% of the world's undiscovered oil and 30% of its undiscovered natural gas
• Mining activities in the Arctic target a range of minerals, including gold, silver, copper, nickel, and rare earth elements
  • Examples of major mining projects include the Red Dog Mine (zinc and lead) in Alaska and the Diavik Diamond Mine in Canada's Northwest Territories
• Fisheries are an important economic activity in the Arctic, with commercial species such as cod, halibut, and salmon supporting local communities and international markets
• The opening of new shipping routes, such as the Northern Sea Route along Russia's coast and the Northwest Passage through Canada's Arctic Archipelago, has the potential to reduce transit times and costs for global trade
• Tourism is a growing industry in the Arctic, with visitors attracted to the region's unique landscapes, wildlife, and cultural heritage
  • Cruise ship tourism has increased significantly in recent years, raising concerns about the environmental and social impacts on local communities
• Sustainable economic development in the Arctic requires balancing resource exploitation with environmental protection, social well-being, and the rights of indigenous peoples
• The Arctic Economic Council, established in 2014, is a business forum that aims to foster sustainable economic development and promote responsible resource management in the Arctic

Future Trends and Emerging Issues in Arctic Politics

• Climate change will continue to be a major driver of environmental, social, and economic changes in the Arctic, with implications for governance and international relations
• The increasing accessibility of the Arctic due to reduced sea ice is likely to intensify interest in resource exploitation, shipping, and tourism, leading to potential conflicts and challenges for sustainable management
• The role of non-Arctic states and actors, such as China, Japan, and the European Union, in Arctic affairs is growing, as they seek to engage in scientific research, economic opportunities, and governance discussions
  • China, for example, released its Arctic Policy in 2018, positioning itself as a "near-Arctic state" and expressing interest in the region's resources and shipping potential
• The militarization of the Arctic is a concern, as nations seek to protect their interests and sovereignty in the region
  • Russia, in particular, has been investing in military infrastructure and capabilities in the Arctic, raising concerns among other Arctic states
• The need for effective search and rescue (SAR) and oil spill response capabilities will become more pressing as human activity in the Arctic increases
• The development of infrastructure, such as ports, airports, and telecommunications, will be critical for supporting economic development and improving the quality of life for Arctic communities
• The incorporation of indigenous knowledge and perspectives in Arctic governance will continue to be an important issue, as will the protection of indigenous rights and the promotion of self-determination
• The negotiation of new international agreements and the adaptation of existing frameworks may be necessary to address emerging challenges and opportunities in the Arctic
  • For example, the need for a regional fisheries management organization for the Central Arctic Ocean has been recognized, leading to the signing of the Agreement to Prevent Unregulated High Seas Fisheries in the Central Arctic Ocean in 2018