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Sediment transport and deposition are crucial processes in aquatic ecosystems. They shape river channels, floodplains, and deltas while distributing nutrients and contaminants. Understanding these processes is key to managing water resources and predicting environmental changes.

This topic covers the types of sediment transport, factors affecting it, and deposition processes. It also explores various deposition environments, impacts on ecosystems, human influences, and measurement methods. These concepts are essential for understanding aquatic system dynamics.

Types of sediment transport

  • Sediment transport is the movement of solid particles (sediment), typically due to a combination of gravity acting on the sediment and/or the movement of the fluid in which the sediment is entrained
  • Sediment transport is a key process in the modification of river channels, floodplains, and deltas, and plays a crucial role in the distribution of nutrients and contaminants in aquatic ecosystems
  • The three main types of sediment transport are bedload transport, suspended load transport, and dissolved load transport, each characterized by different particle sizes, transport mechanisms, and impacts on aquatic environments

Bedload transport

Top images from around the web for Bedload transport
Top images from around the web for Bedload transport
  • Consists of larger particles (gravel, pebbles, cobbles) that move along the bottom of the channel by rolling, sliding, or saltating (bouncing)
  • Occurs when the shear stress exerted by the flowing water exceeds the critical shear stress required to initiate particle motion
  • Bedload transport is intermittent and depends on flow conditions, with higher transport rates occurring during high-flow events (floods)
  • Influences channel morphology by shaping the bed through the formation of bedforms (ripples, dunes, bars) and contributes to sediment sorting and armoring

Suspended load transport

  • Involves finer particles (silt, clay, fine sand) that are carried within the water column by turbulence and currents
  • Particles are maintained in suspension when the upward velocity of the fluid exceeds the settling velocity of the particles
  • Suspended load transport is more continuous than bedload transport and can occur at lower flow velocities
  • Contributes significantly to the total sediment load in rivers and plays a key role in the transport of nutrients, organic matter, and contaminants

Dissolved load transport

  • Consists of ions and molecules that are transported in solution, typically resulting from the weathering of rocks and minerals
  • Dissolved load is not considered sediment in the strict sense but is often included in sediment transport studies due to its influence on water chemistry and aquatic ecosystems
  • The concentration of dissolved load is controlled by factors such as geology, climate, and human activities (agriculture, urbanization)
  • Dissolved load can precipitate and contribute to sediment deposition under certain conditions (changes in pH, temperature, or redox potential)

Factors affecting sediment transport

  • Sediment transport in rivers and other aquatic environments is influenced by a complex interplay of hydrodynamic, sedimentological, and geomorphological factors
  • Understanding the key factors affecting sediment transport is essential for predicting sediment dynamics, managing aquatic habitats, and assessing the impacts of human activities on river systems
  • The main factors affecting sediment transport include flow velocity and turbulence, sediment size and density, and channel morphology and roughness

Flow velocity and turbulence

  • Flow velocity is a primary control on sediment transport, as higher velocities generate greater shear stress on the bed and banks, promoting sediment entrainment and transport
  • Turbulence, characterized by random fluctuations in flow velocity and pressure, plays a crucial role in suspending and dispersing sediment particles
  • The relationship between flow velocity and sediment transport is often described by sediment transport equations, such as the Shields equation or the Meyer-Peter and Müller equation
  • Changes in flow velocity and turbulence, due to variations in discharge or channel geometry, can lead to spatial and temporal patterns in sediment transport and deposition

Sediment size and density

  • Sediment size, typically expressed as the median grain diameter (D50), influences the threshold for particle motion and the mode of transport (bedload, suspended load)
  • Larger particles require higher flow velocities and shear stresses to be entrained and transported, while smaller particles are more easily suspended and carried by the flow
  • Particle density, determined by the mineral composition of the sediment, affects the settling velocity and the transport behavior of sediment
  • Sediment mixtures with a wide range of sizes (poorly sorted) tend to have lower transport rates compared to well-sorted sediments, as the finer particles fill the interstices between larger grains, increasing the critical shear stress

Channel morphology and roughness

  • Channel morphology, including the cross-sectional shape, bed slope, and planform geometry (sinuosity, braiding), influences flow hydraulics and sediment transport processes
  • Roughness elements, such as bedforms, vegetation, and large woody debris, affect flow resistance and turbulence structure, modifying sediment transport and deposition patterns
  • In meandering rivers, sediment transport is often characterized by a lateral asymmetry, with higher transport rates on the outer banks of bends due to secondary currents and increased shear stress
  • Step-pool and riffle-pool sequences in steep channels create a mosaic of sediment transport and storage zones, with coarser particles accumulating in the pools and finer sediments being transported downstream

Sediment deposition processes

  • Sediment deposition occurs when the transport capacity of the flow decreases, allowing suspended particles to settle or bedload to come to rest
  • Deposition processes are influenced by a range of physical, chemical, and biological factors, and play a key role in shaping aquatic habitats and controlling the fate of nutrients and contaminants
  • The main sediment deposition processes include flocculation and aggregation, settling and sedimentation, and sediment trapping in specific environments

Flocculation and aggregation

  • Flocculation is the process by which fine sediment particles (clay, silt) aggregate to form larger, lower-density flocs due to electrostatic interactions and biological adhesion
  • Aggregation is enhanced by the presence of organic matter, which provides binding sites and reduces the repulsive forces between particles
  • Flocculation and aggregation increase the effective particle size and settling velocity, promoting sediment deposition in low-energy environments (estuaries, lakes)
  • The formation of flocs is influenced by factors such as salinity, pH, and the concentration of suspended sediment and organic matter

Settling and sedimentation

  • Settling refers to the downward motion of sediment particles due to gravity, while sedimentation is the process of sediment accumulation on the bed or bottom of a water body
  • The settling velocity of a particle depends on its size, shape, and density, as well as the properties of the fluid (density, viscosity)
  • Sedimentation rates are controlled by the balance between the supply of sediment and the transport capacity of the flow, with higher rates occurring in areas of reduced flow velocity or increased sediment input
  • Sedimentation patterns can be influenced by local flow conditions, such as eddies, backwaters, and flow separation zones, which create preferential deposition sites

Sediment traps and sinks

  • Sediment traps are features or environments that promote the deposition and retention of sediment, such as vegetation patches, floodplain depressions, and tidal marshes
  • These traps reduce flow velocity and turbulence, allowing sediment to settle and accumulate, and can play a crucial role in reducing sediment delivery to downstream areas
  • Sediment sinks are larger-scale depositional environments, such as deltas, estuaries, and continental shelves, where significant amounts of sediment are stored over long timescales
  • The efficiency of sediment traps and sinks depends on factors such as the trapping mechanism, the sediment supply, and the frequency and magnitude of disturbance events (floods, storms)

Sediment deposition environments

  • Sediment deposition occurs in a wide range of aquatic environments, each characterized by distinct hydrodynamic conditions, sediment sources, and ecological settings
  • The depositional environment influences the texture, composition, and structure of the deposited sediment, as well as its potential for storage, remobilization, and diagenesis
  • Key sediment deposition environments in the context of limnology include deltas and estuaries, floodplains and alluvial fans, and lakes and reservoirs

Deltas and estuaries

  • Deltas are depositional features formed where rivers enter a standing body of water (ocean, lake), and are characterized by a complex network of channels, levees, and interdistributary bays
  • Estuaries are semi-enclosed coastal bodies of water where freshwater from rivers mixes with saltwater from the ocean, creating a gradient in salinity, density, and sediment transport processes
  • Sediment deposition in deltas and estuaries is controlled by the interplay of river discharge, tidal currents, and wave action, leading to the formation of distinct sedimentary facies (prodelta, delta front, delta plain)
  • Deltas and estuaries are highly productive ecosystems, supporting diverse plant and animal communities, and are often heavily impacted by human activities (urbanization, agriculture, dredging)

Floodplains and alluvial fans

  • Floodplains are low-lying areas adjacent to rivers that are periodically inundated during high-flow events, leading to the deposition of fine-grained sediment (silt, clay) and the formation of fertile soils
  • Alluvial fans are fan-shaped depositional features that form where steep tributary streams enter a main valley or plain, resulting in the accumulation of coarser sediment (gravel, sand) at the fan apex and finer sediment at the fan margins
  • Sediment deposition on floodplains and alluvial fans is influenced by the frequency and magnitude of flooding, the sediment supply from the catchment, and the vegetation cover, which can trap and stabilize sediment
  • These environments provide important habitats for riparian and aquatic species, and their sediment deposits can record past environmental changes and human impacts

Lakes and reservoirs

  • Lakes are natural basins that store water and sediment, with deposition occurring primarily through settling of suspended particles and the accumulation of organic matter from aquatic productivity
  • Reservoirs are man-made lakes created by the construction of dams, and often experience high sedimentation rates due to the trapping of sediment from upstream sources
  • Sediment deposition in lakes and reservoirs is influenced by factors such as the size and shape of the basin, the water residence time, and the thermal stratification, which can create distinct depositional zones (littoral, profundal)
  • The accumulation of sediment in lakes and reservoirs can have significant impacts on water storage capacity, water quality, and aquatic habitats, and may require management interventions (dredging, flushing)

Impacts of sediment deposition

  • Sediment deposition has a wide range of impacts on aquatic ecosystems, water resources, and human activities, depending on the location, magnitude, and composition of the deposited sediment
  • These impacts can be both positive, such as the creation of new habitats or the storage of nutrients, and negative, such as the loss of water storage capacity or the burial of benthic communities
  • The main impacts of sediment deposition include nutrient and contaminant storage, habitat creation and modification, and reservoir siltation and capacity loss

Nutrient and contaminant storage

  • Deposited sediment can act as a sink for nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus) and contaminants (metals, organic pollutants) that are adsorbed to particle surfaces or incorporated into sediment aggregates
  • The storage of nutrients in sediment can buffer aquatic ecosystems against eutrophication and support benthic productivity, but can also lead to the release of nutrients under certain conditions (anoxia, pH changes)
  • Contaminants stored in sediment can pose a risk to aquatic organisms and human health through bioaccumulation and biomagnification in food webs, and may require remediation efforts (dredging, capping)
  • The long-term fate of nutrients and contaminants in deposited sediment depends on factors such as the sediment composition, redox conditions, and biological activity

Habitat creation and modification

  • Sediment deposition can create new habitats, such as river islands, floodplain wetlands, and delta marshes, which support diverse plant and animal communities
  • The accumulation of fine sediment in gravel-bed rivers can fill interstitial spaces, reducing habitat quality for benthic invertebrates and fish spawning
  • Excessive sedimentation can bury and smother benthic organisms, leading to changes in community structure and ecosystem functioning
  • The modification of aquatic habitats by sediment deposition can have cascading effects on food webs, nutrient cycling, and ecosystem services (water purification, flood control)

Reservoir siltation and capacity loss

  • Reservoirs are particularly susceptible to sedimentation, as they trap a large portion of the sediment load from upstream sources, leading to the gradual filling of the reservoir basin
  • Siltation reduces the water storage capacity of reservoirs, compromising their ability to provide water supply, flood control, and hydropower generation services
  • The accumulation of sediment in reservoirs can also affect water quality, by promoting the growth of aquatic weeds, releasing nutrients and contaminants, and altering the thermal structure of the water column
  • Managing reservoir siltation often requires costly interventions, such as dredging, flushing, or the construction of upstream sediment traps, and may involve trade-offs between sediment management and other reservoir functions

Anthropogenic influences on sediment

  • Human activities have a profound impact on sediment dynamics in aquatic systems, altering the sources, transport, and deposition of sediment across multiple spatial and temporal scales
  • Anthropogenic influences can lead to increased soil erosion, changes in sediment delivery to rivers and coastal areas, and modifications of the natural sediment regime, with consequences for aquatic habitats, water resources, and infrastructure
  • The main anthropogenic factors affecting sediment include land use changes and erosion, dam construction and flow regulation, and sediment dredging and removal

Land use changes and erosion

  • Changes in land use, such as deforestation, agricultural expansion, and urbanization, can significantly increase soil erosion and sediment yield from catchments
  • The removal of natural vegetation exposes soils to the erosive action of rainfall and runoff, leading to the detachment and transport of sediment particles
  • Agricultural practices, such as tillage, overgrazing, and the use of heavy machinery, can further enhance soil erosion and sediment production
  • Urbanization alters sediment dynamics by increasing surface runoff, modifying drainage networks, and introducing new sources of sediment (construction sites, road wear)

Dam construction and flow regulation

  • Dams and reservoirs trap a significant portion of the sediment load in rivers, disrupting the natural sediment continuum and altering downstream sediment transport and deposition processes
  • The reduction in sediment supply below dams can lead to channel incision, bed armoring, and the loss of floodplain habitats, as well as the erosion of delta and coastal areas
  • Flow regulation by dams modifies the natural hydrological regime, reducing the frequency and magnitude of flood events that are important for sediment transport and deposition
  • Sediment starvation and altered flow regimes can have cascading effects on aquatic ecosystems, including changes in nutrient dynamics, primary productivity, and species composition

Sediment dredging and removal

  • Dredging involves the removal of sediment from river channels, estuaries, and coastal areas for navigation, flood control, and mining purposes
  • While dredging can temporarily improve water depth and flow conveyance, it can also have significant impacts on sediment dynamics and aquatic habitats
  • The removal of sediment can alter the balance between sediment supply and transport capacity, leading to upstream erosion and downstream deposition
  • Dredging activities can resuspend and redistribute contaminated sediments, affecting water quality and aquatic organisms
  • The disposal of dredged material on land or in aquatic environments can create new sediment sources and sinks, with implications for habitat creation and modification

Methods for measuring sediment

  • Measuring sediment transport and deposition is essential for understanding sediment dynamics, monitoring the impacts of human activities, and informing management decisions in aquatic systems
  • A wide range of methods and technologies are available for measuring sediment, each with its own advantages, limitations, and applicability to different environments and research questions
  • The main methods for measuring sediment include sediment traps and cores, acoustic and optical sensors, and remote sensing and geospatial analysis

Sediment traps and cores

  • Sediment traps are devices that are deployed in the water column or on the bed to collect settling sediment particles over a specific time period
  • Traps can provide information on sediment fluxes, composition, and settling velocities, and are often used in conjunction with other measurements (current velocity, water quality)
  • Sediment cores are vertical samples of deposited sediment that are extracted from the bed using a variety of coring devices (gravity corers, piston corers, vibracorers)
  • Cores can provide a record of past sediment deposition and environmental conditions, as well as information on sediment properties (grain size, density, geochemistry)

Acoustic and optical sensors

  • Acoustic sensors, such as Acoustic Doppler Current Profilers (ADCPs) and Multi-Beam Echo Sounders (MBES), use sound waves to measure water velocity and sediment concentration profiles
  • ADCPs can provide high-resolution measurements of sediment transport rates and particle size distributions, while MBES can map bed morphology and sediment facies
  • Optical sensors, such as turbidity meters and laser diffraction instruments, use light scattering and absorption properties to measure suspended sediment concentration and particle size
  • These sensors can provide continuous, in-situ measurements of sediment dynamics, but may require calibration and validation with physical samples

Remote sensing and geospatial analysis

  • Remote sensing techniques, such as satellite imagery and airborne LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging), can provide spatially extensive data on sediment dynamics and landscape change
  • Multispectral and hyperspectral sensors can detect changes in sediment composition, vegetation cover, and water quality, while LiDAR can map high-resolution topography and bathymetry
  • Geospatial analysis tools, such as Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and digital elevation models (DEMs), can be


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AP® and SAT® are trademarks registered by the College Board, which is not affiliated with, and does not endorse this website.
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