🧑‍🤝‍🧑Human Social Behavior I Unit 14 – Gender & Sexuality in Human Behavior

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Gender refers to the socially constructed roles, behaviors, expressions and identities of girls, women, boys, men, and gender diverse people
• Sex is a label (male or female) that you're assigned by a doctor at birth based on the genitals you're born with and the chromosomes you have
• Gender identity is a person's internal sense of being male, female, some combination of male and female, or neither male nor female
• Sexual orientation describes patterns of emotional, romantic, and sexual attraction—and one's sense of identity based on those attractions
• Cisgender describes a person whose gender identity aligns with the sex assigned to them at birth
• Transgender is an umbrella term used to describe people whose gender identity differs from the sex they were assigned at birth
• Non-binary is a term used to describe people whose gender identity does not fit into the traditional male-female binary
• Gender expression refers to the way a person communicates their gender identity to others through behavior, clothing, hairstyles, voice or body characteristics

Historical Perspectives on Gender and Sexuality

• In ancient Greece, same-sex relationships between men were socially acceptable and even encouraged in some contexts (pederasty)
• During the Victorian era, strict gender roles emerged, with women seen as pure, submissive, and confined to the domestic sphere while men were expected to be strong, aggressive, and active in the public sphere
• The women's suffrage movement in the late 19th and early 20th centuries challenged traditional gender roles and fought for women's right to vote
• The Stonewall riots in 1969 marked a turning point in the fight for LGBTQ+ rights and sparked the modern gay liberation movement
• Second-wave feminism in the 1960s and 1970s focused on issues such as reproductive rights, sexuality, family, the workplace, and legal inequalities
  • Key figures included Betty Friedan, Gloria Steinem, and Simone de Beauvoir
• The AIDS crisis in the 1980s had a profound impact on the LGBTQ+ community and led to increased activism and visibility
• The legalization of same-sex marriage in many countries in the early 21st century marked a significant milestone for LGBTQ+ rights

Biological Factors and Sex Differences

• Chromosomes determine an individual's biological sex, with females typically having two X chromosomes (XX) and males having one X and one Y chromosome (XY)
• Hormones play a crucial role in sexual development and differentiation, with testosterone associated with male characteristics and estrogen with female characteristics
• Brain structure and function may differ between males and females, although the extent and significance of these differences are debated
  • Some studies suggest differences in areas such as the hippocampus, amygdala, and prefrontal cortex
• Intersex conditions occur when an individual is born with a reproductive or sexual anatomy that doesn't fit the typical definitions of female or male
• While there are some average differences between males and females in traits such as physical strength, spatial ability, and verbal skills, there is significant overlap between the sexes and individual variation within each sex
• Socialization and cultural factors likely play a significant role in shaping observed sex differences in behavior and preferences

Gender Identity Development

• Gender identity typically develops in stages, beginning with gender labeling (identifying oneself and others as male or female) around age 2-3
• Gender stability (understanding that gender remains constant over time) develops around age 4-5
• Gender constancy (recognizing that gender is a permanent attribute) is achieved by age 6-7
• Social learning theory suggests that children learn gender roles and behaviors through observation, imitation, and reinforcement
• Cognitive-developmental theory proposes that children actively construct their understanding of gender through their interactions with the environment
• Biological factors, such as prenatal hormones and genetic influences, may also play a role in gender identity development
• Some individuals may experience gender dysphoria, a feeling of distress or discomfort due to a mismatch between their gender identity and their assigned sex
• Gender identity can be fluid and may change over an individual's lifetime

Sexual Orientation and Expression

• Sexual orientation exists along a continuum, with individuals identifying as heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual, pansexual, asexual, or other orientations
• Coming out refers to the process of disclosing one's sexual orientation or gender identity to others
• The Kinsey scale, developed by Alfred Kinsey in the 1940s, represents sexual orientation as a spectrum from exclusively heterosexual to exclusively homosexual
• Sexual fluidity refers to the idea that sexual orientation can change over time and in different contexts
• Conversion therapy, which aims to change an individual's sexual orientation, is widely considered unethical and harmful by medical and mental health organizations
• Heteronormativity refers to the assumption that heterosexuality is the default or "normal" sexual orientation
• Queer theory challenges binary notions of gender and sexuality and emphasizes the fluidity and diversity of identities

Social and Cultural Influences

• Gender roles and expectations vary across cultures and historical periods
• Religion can have a significant influence on attitudes towards gender and sexuality
  • Some religious traditions have strict gender roles and condemn same-sex relationships, while others are more accepting
• Media representations of gender and sexuality can shape societal norms and expectations
  • Stereotypical portrayals of men and women in advertising, movies, and television can reinforce traditional gender roles
• Peer groups and social networks can influence an individual's gender expression and sexual behavior
• Family dynamics, such as parenting styles and the division of household labor, can model and reinforce gender roles
• Education and school environments can perpetuate or challenge gender stereotypes through curriculum, teacher attitudes, and peer interactions
• Laws and policies related to gender equality, LGBTQ+ rights, and sex education vary widely across countries and can impact social attitudes and behaviors

Gender Roles and Stereotypes

• Gender roles are the societal norms and expectations associated with being male or female
  • Traditional gender roles often associate masculinity with traits such as strength, assertiveness, and dominance, while femininity is associated with traits such as nurturing, emotionality, and passivity
• Gender stereotypes are oversimplified and often inaccurate beliefs about the characteristics and behaviors of men and women
  • Examples include the idea that women are naturally better caregivers or that men are inherently more logical and rational
• Gender roles and stereotypes can limit individuals' opportunities and self-expression by prescribing narrow expectations for behavior and achievement
• Children often learn gender roles and stereotypes through observation and reinforcement from parents, peers, media, and other social influences
• Gender role strain refers to the stress and conflict individuals may experience when trying to conform to rigid gender expectations
• Challenging and breaking down gender stereotypes can lead to greater equality and freedom for individuals to express their authentic selves

Contemporary Issues and Debates

• The gender pay gap refers to the difference in average earnings between men and women, which persists even when controlling for factors such as education and job type
• Sexual harassment and assault disproportionately affect women and LGBTQ+ individuals, and the #MeToo movement has brought increased attention to these issues
• Transgender rights, including access to healthcare, legal recognition, and protection from discrimination, remain a contentious issue in many countries
• Intersectionality refers to the ways in which different aspects of identity (such as race, class, and gender) interact to shape an individual's experiences and opportunities
• The representation of women and LGBTQ+ individuals in leadership positions, such as in politics and business, remains disproportionately low
• Debates surrounding sex education in schools, including whether to include information about sexual orientation and gender identity, are ongoing in many communities
• The recognition and acceptance of non-binary and gender-nonconforming identities is growing, but these individuals still face significant discrimination and marginalization
• Reproductive rights, including access to contraception and abortion, continue to be a polarizing political issue in many countries