🥝History of New Zealand Unit 1 – Early Māori Society and Culture

Origins and Migration

• Māori are the indigenous Polynesian people of New Zealand who arrived in several waves of canoe voyages between 1320 and 1350 CE
• Oral traditions and genealogies suggest Māori originated from an ancestral homeland known as Hawaiki (believed to be in the Society Islands or Cook Islands)
• Skilled navigators used double-hulled canoes (waka) to traverse the Pacific Ocean, relying on the stars, ocean currents, and bird migration patterns
• Early settlers likely landed in the North Island and gradually moved southward, adapting to the colder climate and new resources
  • Archaeological evidence of early settlements found in Wairau Bar (South Island) and Houhora (North Island)
• Over centuries, Māori developed a distinct culture and language shaped by their environment and isolation from other Polynesian islands
• Māori society was organized into iwi (tribes), hapū (subtribes), and whānau (extended families) based on common ancestry and territorial occupation
• Migration stories and genealogies were passed down through oral traditions, connecting Māori to their ancestors and the land

Social Structure and Organization

• Māori society was hierarchical, with rank determined by birth, ancestry, and individual achievements
• The basic social unit was the whānau (extended family), consisting of three to four generations living together
• Whānau were part of a larger hapū (subtribe), which was a cluster of related whānau who shared a common ancestor
• Hapū were the primary political and economic unit, occupying a specific territory and managing its resources
  • Hapū members worked together in agriculture, fishing, hunting, and warfare
• Iwi (tribes) were composed of several related hapū, often occupying a larger geographical area
  • Iwi provided a sense of shared identity and could unite in times of conflict or for major events (hui)
• Ariki (chiefs) were the highest-ranking members of an iwi, with authority over the hapū leaders (rangatira)
  • Ariki were believed to have a direct lineage to the gods and possessed mana (spiritual power and prestige)
• Tohunga were experts in various fields (religion, medicine, carving) and played a crucial role in maintaining cultural knowledge and practices

Traditional Beliefs and Worldview

• Māori had a rich mythology and belief system that shaped their worldview and daily life
• The creation story revolves around the separation of Ranginui (Sky Father) and Papatūānuku (Earth Mother) by their children, the gods of various domains (forests, oceans, winds)
• Māori believed in a pantheon of gods (atua) who controlled the natural world and human affairs
  • Tāne Mahuta (god of forests), Tangaroa (god of the sea), Tūmatauenga (god of war), and Rongo (god of agriculture) were among the most important atua
• Ancestors were revered and believed to have a continued presence in the world of the living
  • Carved figures (tiki) and other objects were used to represent and communicate with ancestors
• Tapu (sacred or forbidden) and noa (ordinary or unrestricted) were fundamental concepts that governed social interactions and resource management
  • Tapu could be inherited (by high-ranking individuals) or imposed (on objects, places, or activities) to maintain social order and spiritual balance
• Māori believed in an afterlife, where the spirits of the dead would travel to Te Rerenga Wairua (Cape Reinga) and depart to the underworld (Rarohenga)

Daily Life and Customs

• Māori lived in villages (kāinga) consisting of several whare (houses) made from timber, reeds, and other local materials
  • The meeting house (wharenui) was the focal point of the village, used for gatherings, ceremonies, and accommodating guests
• Horticulture was a central part of Māori life, with crops such as kūmara (sweet potato), taro, and gourds cultivated in gardens
• Fishing and hunting provided important sources of protein, with techniques adapted to local environments
  • Fishing methods included nets, traps, and hooks, while birds and small game were hunted using snares and spears
• Food was cooked in earth ovens (hāngi) or over open fires, and preserved through drying, smoking, or storing in pits
• Māori followed a lunar calendar (maramataka) that guided planting, harvesting, and fishing activities based on the phases of the moon
• The extended family (whānau) was the primary unit of daily life, with members working together and sharing resources
• Children were raised communally, with grandparents often playing a significant role in their upbringing and education
  • Informal learning focused on practical skills, oral traditions, and cultural values

Arts and Crafts

• Māori developed a rich artistic tradition that served both functional and spiritual purposes
• Whakairo (carving) was a highly developed art form, with intricate designs adorning wharenui, waka, and other objects
  • Carvings often depicted ancestors, mythological figures, and abstract patterns that conveyed cultural narratives and values
• Tā moko (tattoo) was a sacred art practiced by tohunga, with designs reflecting an individual's rank, achievements, and genealogy
  • Men typically received facial tattoos (moko), while women were tattooed on the chin and lips (kauae)
• Weaving was another important craft, with women creating intricate cloaks (kākahu), baskets (kete), and mats from flax (harakeke) and other fibers
  • Cloaks were often adorned with feathers and worn during ceremonies or given as gifts to cement alliances
• Māori also excelled in stone carving, creating weapons (mere), tools (toki), and ornaments (hei tiki) from pounamu (greenstone) and other materials
• Music and dance were integral to Māori culture, with waiata (songs) and haka (posture dances) performed during ceremonies, celebrations, and as a form of challenge or intimidation
  • The poi, a ball attached to a string, was used by women in rhythmic dances that improved hand-eye coordination

Warfare and Conflict

• Warfare was common among Māori tribes, often stemming from disputes over land, resources, or perceived offenses to mana (prestige)
• Pā (fortified villages) were constructed on hilltops or other defensible positions, with palisades, ditches, and terraces providing protection
  • Pā could be temporary or permanent, depending on the level of threat and the strategic importance of the location
• Hand-to-hand combat was the primary mode of warfare, with warriors using a variety of weapons such as mere (clubs), taiaha (staffs), and patu (short clubs)
  • Long-range weapons included the tao (spear) and the whip-like poia, while the wahaika (wooden club) could be used for close-quarters fighting
• Battles were often preceded by challenges and ritual provocations, such as the wero (ceremonial challenge) and the haka (war dance)
• Defeated enemies could be enslaved (taurekareka) or killed, with some tribes practicing cannibalism (kai tangata) as a way to absorb the mana of their foes
• Conflict resolution often involved mediation by neutral parties, with compensation (utu) paid to restore balance and mana
  • Intermarriage between rival tribes was another way to establish peace and forge alliances

Environmental Interactions

• Māori had a deep spiritual connection to the natural world, with the land, water, and resources seen as gifts from the gods
• Kaitiakitanga (guardianship) was a central concept, with Māori responsible for managing and protecting the environment for future generations
  • This involved sustainable harvesting practices, such as rotating fishing grounds and allowing time for resources to replenish
• Māori used a variety of methods to modify the landscape to suit their needs, such as terracing hillsides for gardens and building eel weirs in rivers
• The introduction of Polynesian rats (kiore) and dogs (kurī) had a significant impact on native flora and fauna, particularly ground-nesting birds
• Māori also used fire to clear land for cultivation and to encourage the growth of bracken fern (raupo), an important food source
• Over time, Māori developed an extensive knowledge of local plants and their properties, using them for food, medicine, and crafts
  • The karaka tree, for example, provided berries that could be processed to remove toxins and eaten, while its leaves were used to treat skin conditions
• Oral traditions and place names often reflected the relationship between Māori and the environment, with stories and legends attached to significant landmarks and natural features

Early European Contact

• The first recorded European contact with Māori was the Dutch explorer Abel Tasman in 1642, followed by the British explorer James Cook in 1769
• Early interactions between Māori and Europeans were characterized by a mix of curiosity, trade, and conflict
  • Māori were interested in European goods such as metal tools, firearms, and textiles, while Europeans sought fresh provisions, water, and timber
• Misunderstandings and cultural differences sometimes led to violence, such as the killing of several of Tasman's crew in Golden Bay and the kidnapping of Māori by French explorer Marion du Fresne in the Bay of Islands
• Trade between Māori and Europeans increased in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, particularly after the establishment of whaling and sealing stations along the coast
  • Māori began to incorporate European goods and technologies into their daily lives, such as potatoes, pigs, and muskets
• The introduction of European diseases, such as influenza and measles, had a devastating impact on Māori populations, who had no natural immunity
• Christian missionaries, such as Samuel Marsden and Thomas Kendall, began to arrive in the early 19th century, seeking to convert Māori to Christianity and establish schools
  • Some Māori embraced Christianity and integrated it with their traditional beliefs, while others resisted the new religion
• The increasing European presence and desire for land led to the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840, which established British sovereignty over New Zealand while guaranteeing Māori rights to their lands and resources
  • However, differences in interpretation and implementation of the treaty led to ongoing tensions and conflicts between Māori and the British Crown