African American History – 1865 to Present Unit 7 Review: Black Power and Nationalism (1965-1975)

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Black Power a political slogan and movement that emphasized racial pride, self-sufficiency, and the creation of political and cultural institutions
• Black Nationalism a political and social philosophy that promotes the unity, self-determination, and economic empowerment of African Americans
• Pan-Africanism a worldwide movement that aims to encourage and strengthen bonds of solidarity between all indigenous and diaspora ethnic groups of African descent
• Self-determination the right of a people to determine their own political status and pursue their own economic, social, and cultural development
• Institutional racism a form of racism that is embedded in the laws, policies, and practices of a society or organization
• Black consciousness an awareness of one's identity as a black person and a commitment to the struggle for black liberation
• Revolutionary nationalism a form of nationalism that seeks to overthrow the existing social and political order through radical means
• Cultural nationalism a form of nationalism that emphasizes the importance of preserving and promoting a distinct cultural identity

Historical Context and Precursors

• Civil Rights Movement (1954-1968) laid the groundwork for the emergence of Black Power and Nationalism by challenging racial segregation and discrimination
• Malcolm X (1925-1965) a prominent Black Muslim leader who advocated for black self-determination and criticized the nonviolent approach of the Civil Rights Movement
  • Assassination in 1965 fueled the growth of more radical black political movements
• Watts Riots (1965) a six-day uprising in the Watts neighborhood of Los Angeles that highlighted the frustration and anger of urban African Americans
• Stokely Carmichael (1941-1998) a civil rights activist who popularized the term "Black Power" during the 1966 March Against Fear in Mississippi
• Black Panther Party founded in 1966 by Huey Newton and Bobby Seale in Oakland, California, to challenge police brutality and advocate for black self-defense
• Kerner Commission (1967) a presidential commission that investigated the causes of urban riots and concluded that America was "moving toward two societies, one black, one white—separate and unequal"
• Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. (1968) led to a wave of riots in over 100 cities and increased support for more militant forms of black activism

Major Figures and Organizations

• Huey Newton (1942-1989) co-founder of the Black Panther Party who developed the concept of "revolutionary intercommunalism"
• Bobby Seale (1936-) co-founder of the Black Panther Party who ran for Mayor of Oakland in 1973
• Eldridge Cleaver (1935-1998) Minister of Information for the Black Panther Party and author of the bestselling book "Soul on Ice"
• Angela Davis (1944-) a political activist, academic, and member of the Communist Party USA who was involved in the campaign to free the Soledad Brothers
• Amiri Baraka (1934-2014) a poet, playwright, and activist who was a prominent figure in the Black Arts Movement
• Maulana Karenga (1941-) a professor and activist who created the holiday of Kwanzaa in 1966
• Us Organization a black cultural nationalist group founded by Maulana Karenga in 1965
• Nation of Islam a religious and political organization that combined elements of Islam with black nationalism
  • Led by Elijah Muhammad (1897-1975) until his death in 1975

Ideologies and Philosophies

• Black Power emphasized racial pride, self-determination, and the creation of black political and economic institutions
• Revolutionary nationalism advocated for the overthrow of the existing social and political order through radical means
• Cultural nationalism stressed the importance of preserving and promoting a distinct black cultural identity
• Pan-Africanism promoted unity and solidarity among people of African descent worldwide
• Marxism-Leninism a political philosophy that combined elements of Marxism with the revolutionary strategies of Vladimir Lenin
  • Influenced some Black Power activists who saw capitalism and imperialism as the root causes of racial oppression
• Black capitalism the idea that black economic empowerment could be achieved through the creation of black-owned businesses and financial institutions
• Afrocentrism an ideology that emphasizes the importance of African history, culture, and values in shaping the identity and worldview of people of African descent
• Womanism a form of feminism that addresses the unique experiences and struggles of black women and other women of color

Key Events and Milestones

• March Against Fear (1966) a three-week march from Memphis, Tennessee, to Jackson, Mississippi, that was led by James Meredith and became a pivotal moment in the Black Power movement
• Black Panther Party founded (1966) in Oakland, California, by Huey Newton and Bobby Seale to challenge police brutality and advocate for black self-defense
• Newark and Detroit Riots (1967) two of the most destructive urban uprisings of the 1960s that highlighted the deep racial and economic inequalities in American cities
• Orangeburg Massacre (1968) a confrontation between police and students at South Carolina State University that resulted in the deaths of three black students
• Olympics Black Power Salute (1968) a protest by American sprinters Tommie Smith and John Carlos who raised their fists in a Black Power salute during the medal ceremony
• Fred Hampton assassinated (1969) the chairman of the Illinois chapter of the Black Panther Party was killed by Chicago police in a pre-dawn raid
• Attica Prison Uprising (1971) a four-day revolt by inmates at Attica Correctional Facility in New York that ended with a violent crackdown by state troopers
• National Black Political Convention (1972) a gathering of over 10,000 black activists and politicians in Gary, Indiana, that aimed to develop a unified black political agenda

Cultural and Artistic Expressions

• Black Arts Movement (1965-1975) a cultural movement that sought to create a distinctly black aesthetic in literature, theater, music, and visual arts
• "Black is Beautiful" a slogan that celebrated black physical features and challenged white beauty standards
• Afro hairstyle became a symbol of black pride and resistance to assimilation
• Dashikis colorful, loose-fitting garments of West African origin that were popularized by Black Power activists
• "Say It Loud – I'm Black and I'm Proud" (1968) a funk song by James Brown that became an anthem of the Black Power movement
• "The Autobiography of Malcolm X" (1965) a bestselling memoir that chronicled Malcolm X's journey from street hustler to Muslim minister and black nationalist leader
• "Soul on Ice" (1968) a collection of essays by Eldridge Cleaver that explored issues of race, politics, and masculinity
• "For Colored Girls Who Have Considered Suicide / When the Rainbow Is Enuf" (1976) a choreopoem by Ntozake Shange that portrayed the struggles and triumphs of black women

Impact on Society and Politics

• Increased political representation the number of black elected officials in the United States rose from around 100 in 1965 to over 1,000 by 1975
• Affirmative action policies were implemented in education and employment to address historical inequalities and promote diversity
• Ethnic studies programs were established at colleges and universities across the country to study the histories and cultures of people of color
• Kwanzaa created in 1966 by Maulana Karenga as a holiday to celebrate African American heritage and culture
• Black Panther Party's Free Breakfast Program provided meals to thousands of children in low-income communities
  • Inspired similar programs across the country and helped to popularize the idea of community-based social services
• Increased FBI surveillance and repression of Black Power activists and organizations through COINTELPRO (Counter Intelligence Program)
• Backlash against affirmative action and other race-conscious policies by some white Americans who felt that their opportunities were being limited
• Influence on other social movements the Black Power movement inspired and influenced other groups, such as the Chicano Movement, the American Indian Movement, and the Asian American Movement

Legacy and Contemporary Relevance

• Black Lives Matter a contemporary movement that echoes many of the themes and strategies of the Black Power movement, including a focus on police brutality and systemic racism
• Ongoing debates about the role of race in American society, including issues such as affirmative action, reparations, and the criminal justice system
• Continued economic and social disparities African Americans continue to face higher rates of poverty, unemployment, and incarceration compared to white Americans
• Renewed interest in the history and legacy of the Black Power movement, as reflected in recent films, documentaries, and exhibitions
• Influence on hip-hop culture many hip-hop artists have drawn on the imagery and rhetoric of the Black Power movement in their music and fashion
• Intersectionality a concept that recognizes the overlapping and interdependent systems of oppression and discrimination that affect marginalized groups
  • Draws on the insights of the Black Power movement and other social justice movements
• Afrofuturism a cultural aesthetic that combines science fiction, fantasy, and Afrocentric themes to imagine alternative futures for people of African descent
  • Influenced by the Black Power movement's emphasis on black pride and self-determination