African American History – 1865 to Present Unit 2 Review: The New South & Jim Crow Era (1877-1900)

Key Events and Timeline

• Reconstruction ends in 1877 with the withdrawal of federal troops from the South
• Compromise of 1877 settles the disputed 1876 presidential election and leads to the end of Reconstruction
• Jim Crow laws begin to be enacted in the late 1870s and early 1880s, institutionalizing racial segregation and discrimination
• Plessy v. Ferguson Supreme Court decision in 1896 upholds the constitutionality of racial segregation under the "separate but equal" doctrine
• Wilmington Massacre of 1898 in North Carolina marks a violent backlash against African American political and economic gains
• Ida B. Wells launches her anti-lynching campaign in the 1890s, exposing the brutality and injustice of lynching
• The National Association of Colored Women is founded in 1896 to promote civil rights and community uplift

Political Landscape

• Redeemers, Southern Democrats who sought to restore white supremacy, gain control of state governments in the South
• Disenfranchisement of African American voters through poll taxes, literacy tests, and other discriminatory measures
• Suppression of African American political participation and representation in local, state, and federal government
• Populist Party emerges in the 1890s, briefly challenging the Democratic Party's dominance in the South
• Fusion politics, alliances between Populists and Republicans, achieve some success in states like North Carolina before being violently suppressed
• Grandfather clauses exempt many poor whites from voting restrictions, further entrenching white political power
• Lynching and other forms of racial violence are used to intimidate and suppress African American communities

Economic Changes

• Sharecropping and tenant farming systems emerge, perpetuating economic dependency and poverty for many African Americans
  • Sharecroppers work the land and give a portion of their crops to the landowner as rent
  • Tenant farmers rent the land and pay the landowner in cash or crops
• Convict leasing allows states to lease prisoners, predominantly African American, to private companies for labor
• Industrial development in the South, particularly in textile manufacturing and mining, creates new job opportunities but often excludes African American workers
• African American businesses and entrepreneurs face discrimination and limited access to capital and markets
• The Great Migration begins in the late 1800s, with African Americans moving from the rural South to urban areas in the North and West in search of better economic opportunities
• Agricultural mechanization, such as the invention of the cotton gin, reduces the demand for agricultural labor

Social Structures and Segregation

• Jim Crow laws mandate racial segregation in public spaces, transportation, schools, and other areas of daily life
• "Separate but equal" doctrine, upheld by Plessy v. Ferguson, justifies segregation while providing inferior facilities and resources for African Americans
• Racial etiquette and social norms reinforce white supremacy and the subordination of African Americans
• Housing segregation and redlining restrict African American access to quality housing and neighborhoods
• African American churches and religious institutions serve as centers of community life and support
• Black colleges and universities, such as Howard University and Tuskegee Institute, provide higher education opportunities for African Americans
• Fraternal orders and social clubs, like the Prince Hall Freemasonry, offer networks of mutual aid and solidarity

Jim Crow Laws and Their Impact

• Segregation of public accommodations, including restaurants, hotels, and theaters
• Separate and unequal education, with underfunded and inadequate schools for African American children
• Bans on interracial marriage and relationships, known as anti-miscegenation laws
• Discriminatory labor practices, such as excluding African Americans from certain jobs or paying them lower wages
• Restrictions on voting rights, effectively disenfranchising the vast majority of African Americans in the South
• Unequal treatment in the criminal justice system, with harsher sentences and biased juries
• Psychological and social trauma inflicted by the constant humiliation and dehumanization of segregation

African American Resistance and Activism

• Ida B. Wells' anti-lynching campaign exposes the brutality of lynching and mobilizes opposition to racial violence
• National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) is founded in 1909 to fight for civil rights and against discrimination
• Booker T. Washington advocates for self-help and economic advancement, while accommodating to white supremacy
• W.E.B. Du Bois champions civil rights and political activism, challenging Washington's approach
• African American women's clubs and organizations, like the National Association of Colored Women, promote community uplift and social reform
• Black newspapers, such as the Chicago Defender and the Pittsburgh Courier, provide information and advocacy for African American communities
• Niagara Movement, a precursor to the NAACP, demands full civil rights and an end to racial discrimination

Cultural Developments

• Harlem Renaissance emerges in the 1920s, celebrating African American art, literature, and music
  • Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston, and other writers explore African American experiences and identities
  • Jazz and blues music gain popularity, with artists like Louis Armstrong and Bessie Smith
• Minstrelsy and racist stereotypes in popular culture perpetuate negative images of African Americans
• African American folklore and oral traditions preserve cultural heritage and resist oppression
• Black churches foster a sense of community and serve as spaces for cultural expression
• African American athletes, such as cyclist Marshall "Major" Taylor, challenge racial barriers in sports
• Historically Black Colleges and Universities nurture African American intellectual and cultural life

Legacy and Long-Term Effects

• Jim Crow laws and segregation have lasting impacts on African American communities, including economic disparities and unequal access to education and housing
• Trauma of racial violence and oppression passes down through generations, affecting mental health and well-being
• Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s builds upon the resistance and activism of the Jim Crow era
• Voting Rights Act of 1965 and other legislation dismantle legal barriers to African American political participation
• Persistent racial inequalities in wealth, education, health, and criminal justice are rooted in the Jim Crow era
• Ongoing debates about affirmative action, reparations, and other measures to address the legacy of discrimination
• Continued activism and movements, such as Black Lives Matter, confront systemic racism and advocate for racial justice