🛟Public Health Policy and Administration Unit 11 – Health Systems and Care Delivery
Health systems and care delivery form the backbone of public health infrastructure. These systems encompass organizations, institutions, and resources dedicated to producing health actions, from preventive care to specialized treatments. Understanding their components and functions is crucial for effective health policy and administration.
This unit explores various health care models, financing mechanisms, and delivery approaches. It examines historical developments, current challenges, and future trends in health systems. Key topics include universal health coverage, primary care, health financing, and the impact of technological innovations on care delivery.
Health system encompasses all organizations, institutions, and resources devoted to producing health actions
Health care delivery involves providing preventive, curative, and palliative interventions through health care services
Universal health coverage ensures all individuals have access to needed health services without financial hardship
Primary care serves as the first point of contact for patients and provides comprehensive, coordinated care
Secondary care refers to specialized medical services typically provided by hospitals or specialists
Tertiary care involves highly specialized medical treatment for complex conditions (cancer, cardiovascular surgery)
Health financing mechanisms include government funding, social health insurance, private health insurance, and out-of-pocket payments
Health policy consists of decisions, plans, and actions undertaken to achieve specific health care goals within a society
Historical Context of Health Systems
Early health systems focused on treating acute illnesses and injuries rather than preventive care
The Flexner Report (1910) led to reforms in medical education and the closure of many substandard medical schools in the United States
The World Health Organization (WHO) was established in 1948 to promote international cooperation for improved health conditions
The Declaration of Alma-Ata (1978) emphasized the importance of primary health care and health as a fundamental human right
The Affordable Care Act (2010) expanded health insurance coverage and introduced reforms to the U.S. health care system
Provisions included individual mandates, subsidies for low-income individuals, and the expansion of Medicaid
The COVID-19 pandemic (2020-present) exposed weaknesses in health systems worldwide and highlighted the need for preparedness and resilience
Types of Health Care Systems
Beveridge Model features government-funded and operated health care services (United Kingdom, Spain)
Financed through taxes and ensures universal coverage for all citizens
Bismarck Model relies on compulsory social health insurance funded by employers and employees (Germany, France)
Multiple non-profit insurers compete for members while the government closely regulates the system
National Health Insurance Model combines elements of the Beveridge and Bismarck models (Canada, Taiwan)
Government is the sole payer for health services, but delivery remains largely in private hands
Out-of-Pocket Model lacks a robust public health system, and individuals pay for services directly (many developing countries)
Mixed Model incorporates aspects of different health care systems (United States, Australia)
Often includes a combination of public and private financing and delivery mechanisms
Health Care Delivery Models
Fee-for-service model reimburses providers for each service rendered, which can incentivize overutilization
Capitation model pays providers a fixed amount per enrolled patient, encouraging cost containment and preventive care
Pay-for-performance model rewards providers for meeting predetermined quality and efficiency metrics
Accountable care organizations (ACOs) are groups of providers that coordinate care and share financial risk for a defined patient population
Patient-centered medical homes (PCMHs) provide comprehensive, team-based primary care with a focus on care coordination and quality improvement
Telemedicine involves the use of telecommunications technology to deliver health care services remotely (video consultations, remote monitoring)
Financing and Economics of Health Care
Government financing sources include general taxation, earmarked taxes, and deficit financing
Social health insurance is typically funded through payroll taxes and managed by quasi-governmental organizations
Private health insurance can be purchased by individuals or provided by employers as a benefit
Out-of-pocket payments include deductibles, copayments, and direct payments for services not covered by insurance
Health care expenditures have been rising due to factors such as population aging, technological advancements, and increased prevalence of chronic diseases
Cost containment strategies include price regulation, utilization management, and promoting generic drug use
Value-based purchasing aims to align provider reimbursement with the quality and efficiency of care delivered
Policy and Regulation in Health Systems
Health policy goals often include improving access, quality, and affordability of care
Government agencies (Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services) oversee health care regulation and payment in the United States
Professional organizations (American Medical Association) play a role in shaping health policy through advocacy and guidelines
Licensing and accreditation ensure that health care providers and facilities meet minimum quality standards
Health technology assessment evaluates the clinical and cost-effectiveness of new interventions to inform coverage decisions
Antitrust laws prevent anticompetitive practices and promote competition in health care markets
Privacy regulations (Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act) protect the confidentiality of patient health information
Challenges and Current Issues
Health disparities persist across socioeconomic, racial, and ethnic groups, highlighting the need for health equity initiatives
Rising health care costs strain government budgets, employers, and individuals
Workforce shortages, particularly in primary care and rural areas, can limit access to care
Fragmentation of care delivery can lead to duplication of services, medical errors, and suboptimal outcomes
Antimicrobial resistance poses a growing threat to public health and requires judicious use of antibiotics
Mental health and substance use disorders are prevalent and often undertreated, requiring integrated care approaches
Health information technology adoption has been slow, hindering efforts to improve care coordination and quality
Future Trends and Innovations
Precision medicine tailors treatment based on an individual's genetic, environmental, and lifestyle factors
Artificial intelligence and machine learning can support clinical decision-making and streamline administrative tasks
Wearable devices and remote monitoring enable continuous, real-time tracking of health data
3D printing can create personalized medical devices and implants
Regenerative medicine, including stem cell therapies, holds promise for treating chronic diseases and injuries
Value-based care models will continue to evolve, emphasizing quality, outcomes, and cost-effectiveness
Social determinants of health will receive increased attention, with interventions targeting upstream factors (housing, education, employment)
Global health collaboration will be essential to address transnational health threats and promote health equity