🐠Marine Biology Unit 5 – Marine Algae and Seaweeds

What's the Deal with Marine Algae?

• Marine algae are photosynthetic organisms that live in saltwater environments such as oceans, seas, and estuaries
• Algae are not true plants since they lack roots, stems, leaves, and a vascular system for transporting water and nutrients
• Range in size from microscopic single-celled organisms (microalgae) to large, complex multicellular forms (macroalgae or seaweeds)
  • Microalgae include phytoplankton, which form the base of many marine food webs
  • Macroalgae, like kelp, can grow up to 60 meters in length
• Play crucial roles in marine ecosystems by producing oxygen, providing habitat and food for other organisms, and cycling nutrients
• Estimated that marine algae produce 50-80% of the Earth's oxygen through photosynthesis
• Diverse group of organisms classified into three main categories based on their pigmentation: green algae (Chlorophyta), red algae (Rhodophyta), and brown algae (Phaeophyta)
• Adapted to live in various marine habitats, from shallow coastal waters to deep ocean floors and even polar regions

Types of Seaweeds: The Underwater Forest

• Seaweeds are macroalgae that are multicellular, marine, and visible to the naked eye
• Classified into three main groups based on their pigmentation and other characteristics: green seaweeds (Chlorophyta), red seaweeds (Rhodophyta), and brown seaweeds (Phaeophyta)
• Green seaweeds:
  • Contain chlorophyll a and b, giving them a bright green color
  • Examples include sea lettuce (Ulva) and dead man's fingers (Codium)
• Red seaweeds:
  • Contain phycobiliproteins (phycoerythrin and phycocyanin), which give them a red or purplish color
  • Can absorb blue light, allowing them to live at greater depths than other seaweeds
  • Examples include Irish moss (Chondrus crispus) and dulse (Palmaria palmata)
• Brown seaweeds:
  • Contain chlorophyll a and c, as well as carotenoids (fucoxanthin), giving them a brown or olive-green color
  • Largest and most complex of the seaweeds, often forming underwater forests
  • Examples include giant kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera) and rockweeds (Fucus)
• Some seaweeds, like coralline algae, can secrete calcium carbonate and contribute to the formation of coral reefs

Algae Anatomy 101

• Algae have a simple body structure called a thallus, which lacks true roots, stems, and leaves
• The thallus can be divided into three main parts: the holdfast, stipe, and blade
  • Holdfast anchors the alga to the substrate (rock, shell, or another alga)
  • Stipe is a stem-like structure that supports the blade and helps the alga reach towards the sunlight
  • Blade is the leaf-like part where most photosynthesis occurs
• Some algae have additional structures called air bladders or pneumatocysts, which help them float and stay upright in the water column (kelp)
• Algal cells contain chloroplasts for photosynthesis and a nucleus, but lack other organelles found in plant cells (no mitochondria or endoplasmic reticulum)
• Cell walls of algae vary depending on the group:
  • Green algae have cellulose cell walls similar to plants
  • Red algae have cell walls made of cellulose, agar, and carrageenan
  • Brown algae have cell walls composed of cellulose and alginic acid
• Some algae have specialized reproductive structures called sori, which contain spores for asexual reproduction

How Seaweeds Survive and Thrive

• Seaweeds have adapted to live in various marine environments by developing unique survival strategies
• Photosynthesis: Seaweeds capture sunlight using pigments (chlorophyll, carotenoids, and phycobiliproteins) to produce energy and oxygen
  • Different pigments allow seaweeds to absorb light at various wavelengths and depths
• Nutrient uptake: Seaweeds absorb dissolved nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, and trace elements) directly from the water through their thallus
• Attachment: Holdfasts help seaweeds anchor to substrates and withstand wave action and currents
  • Some seaweeds (coralline algae) secrete calcium carbonate to form a hard, rock-like holdfast
• Flexibility: Many seaweeds have flexible thalli that can bend and move with the water, reducing the risk of damage from waves and currents
• Reproduction: Seaweeds can reproduce both sexually and asexually
  • Sexual reproduction involves the release of sperm and eggs, which fertilize to form a zygote that grows into a new individual
  • Asexual reproduction occurs through fragmentation (pieces of the thallus break off and grow into new individuals) or the release of spores
• Defense mechanisms: Some seaweeds produce chemical compounds (secondary metabolites) that deter herbivores or have antimicrobial properties

Ecological Roles: Why Algae Matter

• Marine algae play critical roles in the structure and function of marine ecosystems
• Primary production: Algae are the main primary producers in marine environments, converting sunlight into organic matter through photosynthesis
  • This organic matter forms the base of marine food webs, supporting a wide variety of organisms
• Oxygen production: Marine algae are responsible for producing 50-80% of the Earth's oxygen, making them crucial for the survival of all aerobic life
• Habitat provision: Seaweeds create complex, three-dimensional habitats that provide shelter, nursery grounds, and foraging areas for numerous marine species
  • Kelp forests are among the most productive and diverse ecosystems on Earth
• Nutrient cycling: Algae participate in the cycling of essential nutrients (carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus) in marine ecosystems
  • They absorb dissolved nutrients from the water and incorporate them into their biomass, which is then consumed by other organisms or decomposed by bacteria
• Carbon sequestration: Marine algae, particularly phytoplankton, play a significant role in the global carbon cycle by absorbing atmospheric carbon dioxide during photosynthesis
  • Some of this carbon sinks to the deep ocean when algae die, helping to mitigate climate change
• Symbiotic relationships: Some algae form symbiotic relationships with other organisms, such as coral polyps (zooxanthellae) or fungi (lichens), providing them with nutrients and energy in exchange for protection or other benefits

Human Uses: From Sushi to Biofuel

• Marine algae have been used by humans for centuries as food, medicine, fertilizer, and more
• Food: Many seaweeds are edible and are consumed worldwide, particularly in Asian cuisines
  • Nori (Porphyra) is used to wrap sushi rolls
  • Kombu (Laminaria) is a key ingredient in miso soup and dashi broth
  • Sea lettuce (Ulva) is used in salads and as a garnish
• Hydrocolloids: Seaweeds are a source of valuable hydrocolloids (agar, carrageenan, and alginate) used as thickening, gelling, and stabilizing agents in various industries
  • Agar is used in microbiology as a growth medium for bacteria and fungi
  • Carrageenan is used in dairy products, processed meats, and cosmetics
  • Alginate is used in pharmaceuticals, textiles, and paper production
• Fertilizers and soil conditioners: Seaweeds are rich in nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium) and can be used as organic fertilizers or soil conditioners to improve crop growth and soil health
• Medicinal applications: Some seaweeds contain bioactive compounds with potential medicinal properties, such as antioxidants, anti-inflammatory agents, and anticoagulants
  • Fucoidan, a polysaccharide found in brown algae, has shown promise in cancer research and immune system modulation
• Biofuels: Marine algae, particularly microalgae, are being explored as a sustainable source of biofuels due to their high lipid content and rapid growth rates
  • Algal biofuels have the potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and dependence on fossil fuels
• Bioremediation: Some algae can absorb excess nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) and heavy metals from polluted waters, helping to improve water quality and restore aquatic ecosystems

Threats and Conservation: Keeping the Seaweed Safe

• Despite their importance, marine algae face various threats that can impact their survival and the health of marine ecosystems
• Climate change: Rising sea temperatures, ocean acidification, and changes in ocean circulation patterns can affect the growth, distribution, and productivity of marine algae
  • Warmer waters can lead to the bleaching and death of coral reefs, which rely on symbiotic algae (zooxanthellae) for survival
• Nutrient pollution: Excess nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) from agricultural runoff, sewage, and industrial waste can lead to eutrophication, causing harmful algal blooms that deplete oxygen and create "dead zones" in coastal waters
• Overharvesting: The increasing demand for seaweed products (food, hydrocolloids, and fertilizers) can lead to the unsustainable harvesting of wild seaweed populations, disrupting marine ecosystems
• Invasive species: Non-native algae introduced through human activities (aquaculture, ballast water, or aquarium trade) can outcompete native species and alter the structure and function of marine communities
• Coastal development: The destruction or modification of coastal habitats (wetlands, estuaries, and rocky shores) can reduce the availability of suitable substrates for seaweed attachment and growth
• Conservation efforts: Various strategies are being implemented to protect and conserve marine algae and their habitats
  • Establishing marine protected areas (MPAs) to restrict human activities and allow seaweed populations to recover
  • Promoting sustainable seaweed farming practices that minimize environmental impacts and support local communities
  • Developing regulations and guidelines for the harvesting and trade of wild seaweeds to ensure their long-term viability
  • Encouraging the use of seaweeds as natural solutions for coastal protection, nutrient removal, and carbon sequestration (blue carbon)

Cool Algae Facts and Future Research

• Some cool and interesting facts about marine algae, as well as areas of ongoing and future research
• Bioluminescence: Some marine algae, like the dinoflagellate Noctiluca scintillans, can produce light through a chemical reaction called bioluminescence, creating mesmerizing "glowing" waves at night
• Coralline algae: These red algae secrete calcium carbonate, forming hard, rock-like structures that contribute to the formation and maintenance of coral reefs
  • Coralline algae are important for reef resilience, as they can help reefs recover from disturbances like coral bleaching
• Algal toxins: Some algae, particularly certain species of dinoflagellates, can produce potent toxins that can accumulate in shellfish and cause illness in humans who consume them (paralytic shellfish poisoning)
• Seaweed as a carbon sink: Researchers are investigating the potential of seaweed farming as a nature-based solution for mitigating climate change by sequestering carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
  • Seaweed can absorb up to 20 times more carbon dioxide per acre than land-based forests
• Algal biofuels: Scientists are exploring ways to optimize the production of biofuels from microalgae, which have a higher lipid content and faster growth rates compared to land-based crops
  • Challenges include reducing production costs, increasing lipid yields, and developing efficient harvesting and processing methods
• Seaweed-based materials: Researchers are developing biodegradable and sustainable materials derived from seaweed, such as bioplastics, packaging materials, and textiles, to reduce reliance on fossil fuel-based products
• Algae in space: Scientists are studying the potential of using algae for life support systems in space exploration, as they can produce oxygen, recycle carbon dioxide, and provide a source of food and nutrients for astronauts
• Algal blooms and climate change: Ongoing research aims to understand how climate change may affect the frequency, intensity, and distribution of harmful algal blooms, and develop strategies to mitigate their impacts on marine ecosystems and human health