Types of Elections in the US

Why This Matters

Elections are the fundamental mechanism through which democratic legitimacy is established in American government. You're being tested on more than just when elections happen—the AP exam expects you to understand how different election types serve distinct functions in the political system: candidate selection, officeholder accountability, federalism in action, and voter behavior patterns. Each election type reveals something about the structure of American democracy, from the separation of powers to the tension between national and state authority.

Don't just memorize that midterms happen every two years—know why turnout drops, how that affects which party benefits, and what this reveals about voter engagement theory. The items below are organized by their function in the democratic process, not alphabetically. Understanding these categories will help you tackle FRQs that ask you to compare election mechanisms or explain how different elections produce different outcomes.

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Candidate Selection Elections

These elections determine who represents each party before voters make their final choice. They're internal party processes that have become increasingly democratized over time, shifting power from party elites to ordinary voters.

Primary Elections

• Primaries select party nominees for general elections, effectively narrowing the field before voters choose between parties
• Open, closed, and semi-closed formats determine who can participate—closed primaries restrict voting to registered party members, while open primaries allow any voter to participate
• Front-loading and momentum shape outcomes, as early primary states like Iowa and New Hampshire gain outsized influence over the nomination process

Runoff Elections

• Triggered when no candidate wins a majority, runoffs force a second round between the top two vote-getters
• Majority requirements vary by state—some states use them in primaries, others in general elections, particularly in the South
• Lower turnout in runoffs often benefits candidates with more motivated base supporters, shifting electoral dynamics from the initial round

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Federal Office Elections

These elections fill positions in the national government and demonstrate key constitutional principles including separation of powers, federalism, and staggered terms designed to balance stability with responsiveness.

Presidential Elections

• Held every four years using the Electoral College system, where candidates need 270 electoral votes rather than a popular vote majority
• Winner-take-all allocation in most states amplifies the importance of swing states and can produce presidents who lose the popular vote
• Highest voter turnout of any election type, typically 50-60% of eligible voters, driven by media attention and perceived stakes

Congressional Elections (House and Senate)

• All 435 House seats contested every two years, while only one-third of the Senate's 100 seats are up in any given election
• Different term lengths reflect different roles—two-year House terms keep representatives close to public opinion, while six-year Senate terms insulate senators from short-term pressures
• Incumbency advantage is powerful in both chambers, with reelection rates often exceeding 90% for House members due to gerrymandering, name recognition, and fundraising advantages

Midterm Elections

• Occur two years into a presidential term, serving as an informal referendum on the president's performance
• The president's party typically loses seats—a pattern so consistent it's used to predict outcomes and reflects voter tendency to check executive power
• Lower turnout than presidential elections (often 40% or less) means the electorate skews older, whiter, and more partisan than in presidential years

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State and Local Elections

These elections demonstrate federalism in action, with states setting their own rules for timing, qualifications, and procedures. They also reveal how voter fatigue and information costs affect participation at different levels of government.

State Gubernatorial Elections

• Governors serve as chief executives of their states, controlling budgets, appointments, and often serving as party leaders at the state level
• Most states hold gubernatorial elections in non-presidential years, deliberately separating state issues from national politics (though some states like Indiana and North Carolina vote for governor during presidential years)
• Term limits vary by state, affecting incumbent behavior and creating different political dynamics than federal offices without term limits

Local Elections (City, County)

• Lowest turnout of any election type, often below 20%, meaning small numbers of engaged voters have outsized influence
• Nonpartisan ballots are common in local races, removing party cues that help voters in federal elections and increasing the importance of name recognition
• Direct impact on daily life—local officials control schools, police, zoning, and services, yet receive the least voter attention due to information costs

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Accountability Mechanisms

These election types exist to check elected officials between regular election cycles or to finalize unclear outcomes. They demonstrate how American democracy builds in correction mechanisms beyond standard terms.

General Elections

• The final decision point where voters choose between party nominees (and independents) for federal, state, and local offices
• Held on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November, a date set by federal law for congressional and presidential races
• Straight-ticket voting allows voters to select all candidates from one party with a single action, though this option is being eliminated in some states

Special Elections

• Fill vacancies caused by death, resignation, or removal between regular election cycles
• Rules vary dramatically by state and office—some governors appoint replacements, others require special elections, and timelines differ widely
• Often seen as bellwethers for upcoming regular elections, though lower turnout and unique circumstances make them unreliable predictors

Recall Elections

• Allow voters to remove officials before their term ends, a direct democracy mechanism available in 19 states for state officials
• Signature thresholds must be met to trigger a recall vote, typically requiring 12-25% of votes cast in the previous election for that office
• High-profile examples include California's 2003 recall of Governor Gray Davis and the 2021 failed recall of Governor Gavin Newsom, demonstrating both the power and limitations of this accountability tool

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Quick Reference Table

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Self-Check Questions

1. Which two election types both serve to narrow the candidate field, and how do they differ in when they occur in the electoral process?

2. Explain why midterm elections typically result in seat losses for the president's party. What does this pattern reveal about voter behavior and the concept of "surge and decline"?

3. Compare gubernatorial elections and local elections in terms of voter turnout. What concept explains why voters pay less attention to races that may affect their daily lives more directly?

4. If an FRQ asks you to explain how American elections provide accountability mechanisms beyond regular terms, which two election types would you discuss, and how do they differ?

5. How do closed primaries versus open primaries reflect different views about the role of political parties in candidate selection? Which format gives parties more control over their nominations?