Grammar Rules

Why This Matters

Grammar isn't just about following arbitrary rules—it's the underlying system that makes communication possible. On exams, you're being tested on your ability to recognize sentence structure errors, apply agreement principles, and use punctuation strategically to control meaning. These skills appear everywhere: in multiple-choice editing questions, in rhetorical analysis where you explain why an author's syntax works, and in your own essays where errors can undermine your credibility.

Think of grammar as the architecture of language. Every rule exists to solve a communication problem: ambiguity, confusion, or misplaced emphasis. When you understand the purpose behind each rule, you stop memorizing and start reasoning. That's what separates students who spot errors instinctively from those who second-guess every answer. Don't just memorize these rules—know what problem each one solves and how violations create confusion.

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Agreement and Consistency

These rules ensure that related parts of a sentence match each other logically. Agreement errors create a mismatch between elements that should correspond in number, person, or form.

Subject-Verb Agreement

• Subjects and verbs must match in number—singular subjects take singular verbs, plural subjects take plural verbs
• Tricky subjects like collective nouns (team, jury) and indefinite pronouns (everyone, each) are usually singular despite seeming plural
• Compound subjects joined by "and" take plural verbs; those joined by "or/nor" match the nearest subject

Proper Use of Pronouns

• Pronoun-antecedent agreement requires pronouns to match their nouns in number and gender (The students submitted their work)
• Case matters—use subjective pronouns (I, she, they) for subjects and objective pronouns (me, her, them) for objects
• Ambiguous references occur when it's unclear which noun a pronoun replaces—always ensure clarity

Verb Tenses and Conjugation

• Tense indicates time—past, present, and future establish when actions occur
• Consistency is crucial—shifting tenses mid-paragraph confuses readers about the timeline
• Irregular verbs (go/went, write/written) don't follow standard patterns and must be memorized

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Sentence Construction

These rules govern how you build sentences and combine ideas. The structure you choose affects clarity, emphasis, and rhythm.

Sentence Structure (Simple, Compound, Complex)

• Simple sentences contain one independent clause and deliver single ideas with punch
• Compound sentences join two independent clauses with coordinating conjunctions (and, but, so) to show equal ideas
• Complex sentences pair an independent clause with a dependent clause to show relationships like cause, condition, or time

Sentence Fragments and Run-On Sentences

• Fragments lack a subject, verb, or complete thought—they leave readers hanging (Because she was tired.)
• Run-ons improperly fuse independent clauses without punctuation or conjunctions (I love grammar it makes writing clear)
• Comma splices are a run-on subtype where a comma alone joins independent clauses—use a semicolon or conjunction instead

Parallel Structure

• Parallelism requires items in a series to share the same grammatical form (hiking, swimming, biking not hiking, to swim, biking)
• Balance in comparisons means both sides of "than" or "as" should match structurally
• Rhetorical power comes from parallelism—it creates rhythm and makes ideas memorable

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Modifier Placement

Modifiers add detail, but their position determines what they modify. Misplacement creates ambiguity or unintended meanings.

Modifiers and Their Placement

• Proximity principle—place modifiers directly next to the words they describe to avoid confusion
• Misplaced modifiers attach to the wrong word (She almost drove her kids to school every day suggests she nearly did it, not frequently)
• Squinting modifiers sit between two words and could modify either—reposition for clarity

Dangling and Misplaced Modifiers

• Dangling modifiers lack a logical subject in the sentence (After reading the book, the movie was disappointing—the movie didn't read)
• Fix danglers by adding the missing subject (After I read the book, the movie was disappointing)
• These errors are exam favorites because they create absurd or illogical meanings that careful readers catch

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Punctuation Mechanics

Punctuation marks are traffic signals for readers. Each mark serves a specific function in controlling pace, separating ideas, and clarifying relationships.

Punctuation Rules (Commas, Semicolons, Colons)

• Commas separate list items, follow introductory elements, and precede coordinating conjunctions in compound sentences
• Semicolons connect closely related independent clauses without conjunctions—they signal a tighter relationship than a period
• Colons introduce lists, explanations, or elaborations—what follows the colon explains or expands what precedes it

Apostrophe Usage

• Possession is shown with apostrophes (the dog's leash, the students' projects)
• Contractions use apostrophes to mark omitted letters (don't = do not, it's = it is)
• Never use apostrophes for simple plurals (cats not cat's) or possessive pronouns (its, yours, theirs)

Quotation Marks and Dialogue Punctuation

• Direct speech and quotations require quotation marks around the exact words
• Punctuation placement—periods and commas go inside quotation marks in American English
• Dialogue formatting requires a new paragraph for each speaker to track conversation clearly

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Voice and Style Choices

These rules involve deliberate choices that affect tone and emphasis. Understanding when to break conventions is as important as knowing them.

Active vs. Passive Voice

• Active voice puts the subject first as the doer (The committee approved the proposal)—it's direct and energetic
• Passive voice makes the receiver the subject (The proposal was approved by the committee)—useful when the doer is unknown or unimportant
• Strategic use of passive can emphasize results over actors or maintain focus on a topic across sentences

Capitalization Rules

• Always capitalize the first word of sentences and proper nouns (names, places, specific titles)
• Time markers like days, months, and holidays are capitalized, but seasons are not
• Titles of works capitalize major words but not articles or short prepositions unless they begin the title

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Common Error Traps

These rules address the mistakes that trip up even experienced writers. Memorizing distinctions prevents careless errors.

Commonly Confused Words

• Their/there/they're—possession (their book), location (over there), contraction (they're coming)
• Your/you're and its/it's—possessive pronouns have no apostrophe; contractions do
• Affect/effect—affect is usually a verb (to influence), effect is usually a noun (a result)

Parts of Speech

• Nouns name people, places, things, or ideas; verbs express actions or states of being
• Adjectives modify nouns (the red car); adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs (runs quickly)
• Recognizing parts of speech helps you identify errors—you can't fix a misused modifier if you don't know what modifiers do

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Quick Reference Table

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Self-Check Questions

1. What do subject-verb agreement and pronoun-antecedent agreement have in common, and how do their applications differ in sentence construction?

2. A sentence reads: "Walking through the park, the flowers were beautiful." Identify the error type and explain how to fix it.

3. Compare semicolons and colons: when would you use each to join or introduce information? Give an example of each.

4. Which two commonly confused word pairs involve the same underlying rule about apostrophes in possessive pronouns vs. contractions?

5. An essay contains this sentence: "The research was conducted, the data was analyzed, and then writing the report." What grammatical principle is violated, and how would you revise it?