🌮Latin American Politics Unit 15 – Mexico: Politics and Policymaking

Historical Context

• Mexico gained independence from Spain in 1821 after a long struggle led by figures such as Miguel Hidalgo and José María Morelos
• The Mexican Revolution (1910-1920) was a pivotal event that reshaped Mexico's political and social landscape
  • Sparked by opposition to the long-standing dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz
  • Key revolutionary leaders included Francisco Madero, Pancho Villa, and Emiliano Zapata
• Post-revolutionary period saw the establishment of a one-party dominant system under the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI)
• PRI maintained control of the presidency from 1929 to 2000, often through authoritarian practices and patronage networks
• Economic policies in the 20th century included import substitution industrialization (ISI) and later neoliberal reforms
  • ISI aimed to reduce dependence on foreign imports and promote domestic industries
  • Neoliberal reforms in the 1980s and 1990s involved privatization, trade liberalization, and reduced state intervention
• The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) came into effect in 1994, integrating Mexico's economy with the United States and Canada
• Mexico's transition to democracy accelerated in the 1990s, culminating in the historic election of Vicente Fox (PAN) in 2000, ending PRI's 71-year rule

Political System and Structure

• Mexico is a federal presidential constitutional republic with a multi-party system
• The president serves as both head of state and head of government and is elected directly by the people for a single six-year term (sexenio)
  • Presidents cannot seek re-election, a rule established after the Mexican Revolution to prevent long-term dictatorships
• Legislative power is vested in a bicameral Congress consisting of the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies
  • 128 senators: 96 elected directly and 32 through proportional representation
  • 500 deputies: 300 elected directly and 200 through proportional representation
• Judicial power is exercised by the Supreme Court of Justice, composed of 11 justices appointed by the president and confirmed by the Senate
• Mexico has 32 federal entities: 31 states and Mexico City (formerly the Federal District)
  • Each state has its own constitution, governor, legislature, and judiciary
  • Governors and state legislators are elected directly by the people
• Municipal governments are responsible for local administration and are headed by a mayor (presidente municipal) and a municipal council
• The constitution, first adopted in 1917 and amended several times, is the supreme law of the land and establishes the separation of powers and individual rights

Key Political Actors and Parties

• Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI): Dominant party for most of the 20th century, embracing a big-tent ideology ranging from socialism to neoliberalism
• National Action Party (PAN): Conservative party that broke PRI's hold on the presidency in 2000 with Vicente Fox's victory
• Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD): Left-wing party formed in 1989 by former PRI members, promoting social democracy and economic nationalism
• Movimiento Regeneración Nacional (MORENA): Left-wing party founded by Andrés Manuel López Obrador (AMLO) in 2014, currently holding the presidency and majority in Congress
• Labor unions, such as the Confederation of Mexican Workers (CTM), have historically been influential actors, often aligned with the PRI
• Business organizations, like the Mexican Business Council (CMN), represent the interests of the private sector and have gained influence in the neoliberal era
• Civil society organizations and social movements advocate for various causes, such as human rights, indigenous rights, and environmental protection
  • Examples include the Zapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN) and the Movement for Peace with Justice and Dignity

Electoral Process and Dynamics

• Presidential, legislative, and state elections are held every six years, with midterm legislative elections every three years
• Voting is universal, secret, and direct for citizens aged 18 and above
  • Compulsory voting was abolished in 1991
• Candidates are nominated by political parties or can run independently if they gather enough signatures
• Presidential candidates must receive a plurality of votes to win; there is no runoff system
• Legislative seats are allocated through a mixed system of direct election and proportional representation
  • Proportional representation aims to ensure that parties' seat share reflects their vote share
• Electoral reforms in the 1990s, such as the creation of the Federal Electoral Institute (IFE), helped level the playing field and increase transparency
  • IFE was replaced by the National Electoral Institute (INE) in 2014
• Vote buying, intimidation, and media bias have been persistent issues, although electoral processes have become more credible since the 1990s
• The 2018 election saw a significant shift towards MORENA and left-wing populism, with AMLO winning the presidency and MORENA securing a legislative majority

Policy-Making Mechanisms

• The president has the power to initiate legislation and veto bills passed by Congress
  • A two-thirds majority in both chambers can override a presidential veto
• Bills can be introduced by the president, legislators, state legislatures, or citizens (through popular initiative)
• Legislation typically goes through committees in both chambers before being voted on by the full Congress
  • If approved by both chambers, the bill is sent to the president for signature or veto
• The budget process begins with the president submitting a proposal to Congress, which then debates and modifies it before approval
• Ministries and agencies, such as the Ministry of Finance and the Central Bank, play key roles in formulating and implementing policies
• The Supreme Court can strike down laws or executive actions that are deemed unconstitutional
  • Constitutional amendments require a two-thirds majority in Congress and approval by a majority of state legislatures
• Interest groups, such as unions and business associations, seek to influence policy through lobbying and public pressure
• International actors, like the United States and international financial institutions, can also shape policy choices through diplomacy, trade, and loan conditionality

Major Policy Issues and Debates

• Economic policy: Balancing economic growth, inequality reduction, and fiscal stability
  • Debates over the role of the state in the economy and the extent of neoliberal reforms
  • Challenges include high levels of informality, low productivity, and dependence on oil exports
• Security and the rule of law: Addressing organized crime, drug trafficking, and violence
  • Controversies over militarization of public security and human rights abuses
  • Efforts to reform the criminal justice system and combat corruption
• Social policy: Improving access to and quality of education, healthcare, and social protection
  • Conditional cash transfer programs, such as Oportunidades (now Prospera), aim to reduce poverty and promote human capital
  • Debates over the sustainability and targeting of social spending
• Energy reform: Modernizing the energy sector and reducing dependence on oil revenues
  • 2013 constitutional reform opened up the oil and gas sector to private investment
  • Challenges include attracting investment, increasing efficiency, and managing environmental impacts
• Foreign policy: Navigating relations with the United States and asserting Mexico's role in Latin America and globally
  • Issues include migration, trade, drug policy, and regional integration
  • Balancing the benefits and costs of economic interdependence with the United States

International Relations and Influence

• Mexico's foreign policy is guided by the principles of non-intervention, self-determination, peaceful resolution of disputes, and international cooperation
• The United States is Mexico's most important partner and source of influence, given the extensive economic, social, and security ties between the two countries
  • NAFTA (now USMCA) has deepened economic integration, but also created asymmetric dependencies
  • Cooperation on issues such as migration, drug trafficking, and border security is often strained by tensions and divergent interests
• Mexico is a member of various regional organizations, such as the Organization of American States (OAS), the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States (CELAC), and the Pacific Alliance
  • These memberships reflect Mexico's desire to diversify its partnerships and assert its leadership in Latin America
• Mexico has sought to expand its global presence through participation in multilateral forums, such as the United Nations, the G20, and the OECD
  • Mexico has served as a non-permanent member of the UN Security Council and has been an active promoter of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development
• Relations with the European Union have grown in importance, particularly since the signing of the EU-Mexico Global Agreement in 1997
  • The agreement includes provisions on political dialogue, trade liberalization, and cooperation in areas such as human rights and the environment
• Mexico has also strengthened ties with Asia-Pacific countries, seeking to attract investment and diversify its export markets
  • Mexico is a member of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum and has free trade agreements with Japan and South Korea

Challenges and Future Outlook

• Overcoming the legacy of authoritarian rule and consolidating democratic institutions
  • Strengthening the rule of law, accountability, and transparency
  • Promoting a more inclusive and participatory political system
• Addressing the root causes of violence and insecurity, such as poverty, inequality, and weak institutions
  • Developing a comprehensive strategy that balances law enforcement, prevention, and social investment
  • Reforming the police and judiciary to increase their effectiveness and reduce corruption
• Achieving more equitable and sustainable economic growth
  • Reducing dependence on oil exports and promoting economic diversification
  • Investing in education, innovation, and infrastructure to boost productivity and competitiveness
  • Addressing informality and improving labor market conditions, particularly for youth and women
• Strengthening the social contract and reducing social exclusion
  • Expanding access to quality public services, such as education, healthcare, and social protection
  • Promoting greater social mobility and reducing extreme poverty and inequality
  • Addressing discrimination and protecting the rights of vulnerable groups, such as indigenous peoples and migrants
• Managing the impacts of climate change and environmental degradation
  • Developing a low-carbon, climate-resilient economy
  • Promoting sustainable management of natural resources, such as water and forests
  • Strengthening environmental governance and enforcement of regulations
• Navigating a complex and changing global environment
  • Adapting to shifts in the international economic and political order, such as the rise of China and the crisis of multilateralism
  • Strengthening regional integration and cooperation to address shared challenges and promote common interests
  • Enhancing Mexico's soft power and cultural diplomacy to project a positive image abroad