🧮History of Mathematics Unit 5 – Archimedes and Hellenistic Math

Who Was Archimedes?

• Greek mathematician, physicist, engineer, inventor, and astronomer who lived from c. 287 BC to c. 212 BC
• Born in the seaport city of Syracuse, Sicily which was a self-governing colony in Magna Graecia
• Son of the astronomer Phidias and may have been related to Hiero II, the king of Syracuse
• Studied mathematics at the Library of Alexandria in Egypt under the successors of Euclid
• Considered one of the leading scientists in classical antiquity alongside contemporaries such as Eratosthenes and Apollonius
• Gained a reputation in his own lifetime for his groundbreaking work in mathematics and innovative inventions
• Credited with designing innovative machines, including siege engines and the screw pump that bears his name
• Legend says he was killed by a Roman soldier during the Siege of Syracuse after he refused to leave his mathematical work

The Hellenistic Period: Setting the Scene

• Period in ancient Greek history from the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC to the emergence of the Roman Empire in 31 BC
• Characterized by a shift from the classical Greek city-state to larger kingdoms and empires
• Greek culture and language spread throughout the Mediterranean region and into the Near East and Asia
• Hellenistic kingdoms, particularly the Ptolemaic Kingdom in Egypt, became centers of learning and scientific research
• Saw the rise of great cities such as Alexandria, Antioch, and Pergamon which housed famous libraries and schools
• Greek became the common language (lingua franca) of the region enabling scholars from across the world to communicate ideas
• Advances were made in various fields including astronomy, geography, medicine, physics, and mathematics
• Hellenistic art and architecture flourished with distinctive styles emerging (Pergamene baroque)

Key Mathematical Concepts of the Era

• Euclidean geometry was the foundation for much of the mathematical work during this period
  • Based on Euclid's Elements which consisted of 13 books covering plane and solid geometry, number theory, and mathematical reasoning
• Development of trigonometry as a separate branch of mathematics
  • Hipparchus of Nicaea (c. 190 - c. 120 BC) is often considered the founder of trigonometry
  • Created the first trigonometric table and used it to solve problems in astronomy
• Advancements in the study of conic sections (circles, ellipses, parabolas, hyperbolas)
  • Apollonius of Perga (c. 240 - c. 190 BC) wrote a treatise on conic sections that introduced terms still used today (parabola, hyperbola)
• Continued work on the problem of squaring the circle and doubling the cube
• Development of a more precise value for pi ($\pi$)
  • Archimedes used the method of exhaustion to approximate the value of $\pi$ to be between $3\frac{1}{7}$ and $3\frac{10}{71}$
• Foundations laid for the development of calculus and mathematical analysis in later centuries

Archimedes' Major Contributions

• Anticipated modern calculus and analysis by applying the concept of the infinitely small and using methods similar to integration
• Invented a system for expressing large numbers and performed complex calculations
• Proved that the volume of a sphere is two-thirds the volume of a cylinder that circumscribes it
• Devised a heuristic method to calculate the area under a curve by dividing it into an infinite number of rectangles and adding the areas
• Provided a geometrical proof of the formula for the area of a circle using the method of exhaustion
• Introduced the Archimedean spiral which he described in his work On Spirals
• Formulated the law of buoyancy (Archimedes' principle) which states that the upward force on a submerged object is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced
• Invented numerous mechanical devices including the Archimedes screw, compound pulleys, and defensive war machines

Practical Applications of Archimedes' Work

• The Archimedes screw is still used today for pumping liquids and granulated solids in various applications (irrigation, sewage treatment)
• Compound pulleys, based on Archimedes' designs, are used for lifting heavy loads with a mechanical advantage
• The Archimedes principle is the basis for determining the buoyancy and stability of ships and submarines
• Archimedes' calculation of the area of a circle is used in geometry and has practical applications in fields such as engineering and construction
• The Archimedes claw, a weapon he supposedly designed to defend Syracuse, has inspired modern-day defensive systems and crowd control devices
• Archimedes' work on levers and pulleys has influenced the development of many mechanical devices and machines
• His mathematical ideas and methods, particularly the method of exhaustion, laid the groundwork for the development of calculus which has numerous real-world applications
• Archimedes' work on hydrostatics and buoyancy has been applied in fields such as fluid mechanics and aerodynamics

Other Notable Hellenistic Mathematicians

• Euclid (c. 300 BC) - Considered the "father of geometry" and author of the influential treatise Elements
• Eratosthenes (c. 276 - c. 195/194 BC) - Calculated the circumference of the Earth, invented the Sieve of Eratosthenes for finding prime numbers
• Apollonius of Perga (c. 240 - c. 190 BC) - Known for his work on conic sections and introduced the terms parabola, ellipse, and hyperbola
• Hipparchus of Nicaea (c. 190 - c. 120 BC) - Considered the greatest astronomical observer of antiquity and the founder of trigonometry
• Hero of Alexandria (c. 10 - c. 70 AD) - Known for his work in mechanics, optics, and geometry; invented the aeolipile, an early steam engine
• Diophantus of Alexandria (c. 200/214 - c. 284/298 AD) - Known as the "father of algebra" and author of Arithmetica, a series of books on solving algebraic equations
• Pappus of Alexandria (c. 290 - c. 350 AD) - Known for his work in geometry, particularly his hexagon theorem and centroid theorem
• Menelaus of Alexandria (c. 70 - c. 140 AD) - Pioneered the use of spherical triangles in geometry and astronomy

Legacy and Influence on Modern Math

• Archimedes' work had a profound impact on the development of mathematics and science in the Islamic Golden Age and the European Renaissance
• His mathematical treatises were translated into Arabic and Latin, influencing scholars such as Ibn al-Haytham, Omar Khayyam, and Leonardo da Vinci
• The method of exhaustion, used by Archimedes to calculate areas and volumes, anticipated the development of integral calculus by mathematicians such as Cavalieri, Fermat, and Wallis
• Archimedes' work on hydrostatics and buoyancy laid the foundation for the development of fluid mechanics by scientists such as Pascal, Bernoulli, and Euler
• The Archimedes screw and other mechanical inventions inspired later engineers and inventors such as Vitruvius, al-Jazari, and Leonardo da Vinci
• Archimedes' mathematical notation and use of infinitesimals influenced the development of modern mathematical analysis by Cauchy, Riemann, and Weierstrass
• The Archimedes palimpsest, a Byzantine parchment containing previously unknown works by Archimedes, was rediscovered in the 20th century and has provided new insights into his mathematical methods
• Archimedes is widely regarded as one of the greatest mathematicians of all time and his work continues to inspire and influence modern mathematical research

Cool Facts and Trivia

• Archimedes allegedly ran naked through the streets of Syracuse shouting "Eureka!" after discovering the principle of buoyancy while taking a bath
• He is said to have used mirrors to focus sunlight on Roman ships during the Siege of Syracuse, setting them on fire (though this story is likely apocryphal)
• The Fields Medal, one of the highest honors in mathematics, features a portrait of Archimedes along with his proof for the area of a sphere
• The Archimedes Group, a think tank of leading mathematicians and scientists, was founded in 1942 to solve complex military problems during World War II
• The Archimedes Palimpsest, a 10th-century Byzantine manuscript containing works by Archimedes, was sold at auction for $2 million in 1998
• The Archimedes screw is featured on the reverse of the Greek 10 cent euro coin
• Archimedes' tombstone was said to have been engraved with his favorite mathematical diagram, a sphere inscribed in a cylinder
• The term "eureka," meaning a sudden discovery or insight, is attributed to Archimedes and has entered common usage in many languages