🧠Greek Philosophy Unit 14 – Aristotle's Ethics: Virtue and Happiness

Key Concepts and Terms

• Virtue (aretê) refers to excellence of character, a disposition to act in accordance with reason and moderation
• Eudaimonia is often translated as happiness but more accurately means living well, flourishing, or well-being; it is the highest human good
• The golden mean is the desirable middle point between two extremes, one of excess and the other of deficiency (courage is the mean between rashness and cowardice)
• Phronesis (practical wisdom) is the intellectual virtue that enables one to discern the right course of action in any given situation
• Akrasia (weakness of will) occurs when someone acts against their better judgment due to lack of self-control
• Hexis is a stable disposition or character trait that is developed through habituation and practice
  • Hexeis (plural) are the building blocks of virtue and vice
• Telos refers to the end, purpose, or function of a thing; for humans, the telos is eudaimonia

Aristotle's Life and Influences

• Aristotle (384-322 BCE) was born in Stagira, a Greek colony on the northern coast of the Aegean Sea
• At age 17, he joined Plato's Academy in Athens where he studied for nearly 20 years until Plato's death in 347 BCE
• After leaving the Academy, Aristotle traveled widely and educated the young Alexander the Great in Macedonia
• In 335 BCE, Aristotle returned to Athens and founded his own school, the Lyceum, where he taught, researched, and wrote extensively
• Aristotle's ethical thought was influenced by Plato's theory of Forms but departed from it in significant ways
  • While Plato held that the Form of the Good was the source of all value, Aristotle grounded his ethics in the telos (purpose) of human life
• Aristotle's empirical approach and emphasis on practical reasoning also set him apart from Plato's more abstract and idealistic philosophy

The Nature of Virtue

• For Aristotle, virtues are character traits or dispositions (hexeis) that enable us to live well and achieve eudaimonia
• Virtues are acquired through practice and habituation; we become virtuous by repeatedly performing virtuous actions
  • Just as we become skilled musicians by practicing music, we become virtuous by practicing virtue
• Aristotle distinguishes between intellectual virtues (such as wisdom and prudence) and moral virtues (such as courage and temperance)
  • Intellectual virtues are developed through teaching and instruction
  • Moral virtues are developed through habit and practice
• Each moral virtue is a mean between two extremes, one of excess and one of deficiency (the doctrine of the mean)
• Virtues are context-dependent; what counts as a virtuous action may vary depending on the situation and the individual involved
• True virtue requires practical wisdom (phronesis) to discern the appropriate action in any given circumstance

Happiness (Eudaimonia) Explained

• Eudaimonia is the highest human good and the ultimate aim of human life; it is what we all strive for
• Often translated as "happiness," eudaimonia is better understood as living well, flourishing, or achieving well-being
• Eudaimonia is an activity of the soul in accordance with virtue, not a fleeting emotional state
  • It requires engaging our rational capacities and living according to reason
• Eudaimonia is self-sufficient; it lacks nothing and is desirable for its own sake, not for the sake of something else
• To achieve eudaimonia, we must cultivate both intellectual and moral virtues over the course of a complete life
  • A single virtuous act does not make one eudaimon; it requires a lifetime of virtuous activity
• External goods (such as wealth, friends, and political power) are necessary for eudaimonia but not sufficient; virtue is the key ingredient
• Contemplation is the highest form of activity and most essential to eudaimonia

The Golden Mean

• The doctrine of the mean is central to Aristotle's conception of moral virtue
• Each moral virtue is a mean between two extremes, one of excess and one of deficiency
  • Courage is the mean between the extremes of rashness (excess) and cowardice (deficiency)
  • Temperance is the mean between self-indulgence (excess) and insensibility (deficiency)
• The mean is not a strict mathematical average but a context-dependent middle ground relative to the individual
  • What is temperate for an Olympic athlete will be different than for an average person
• Hitting the mean requires practical wisdom (phronesis) to assess the particulars of each situation
• Aiming for the mean is a practical strategy for decision making and action, not an exact formula
• Some actions (such as murder and theft) do not admit of a mean; they are always wrong

Practical Wisdom (Phronesis)

• Phronesis is the intellectual virtue that enables us to reason well about practical matters and discern the right course of action
• It is the ability to deliberate well about what conduces to the good life (eudaimonia) in general
• Phronesis is distinct from other intellectual virtues such as episteme (scientific knowledge) and techne (skill)
  • It is concerned with particulars and context, not universal truths
• Practical wisdom is necessary for moral virtue; without it, we cannot hit the mean or act appropriately in each situation
• Phronesis is developed through experience, habituation, and learning from role models who exemplify good judgment
• It requires understanding, not just cleverness; the phronimos (practically wise person) acts on the basis of a rational principle

Aristotle's Impact on Ethics

• Aristotle's ethics have had a profound and enduring influence on Western moral philosophy
• His emphasis on virtues, practical wisdom, and the doctrine of the mean have shaped virtue ethics as an alternative to consequentialist and deontological approaches
• Aristotle's conception of eudaimonia has informed debates about the nature of well-being and the good life
• His distinction between intellectual and moral virtues laid the groundwork for later theories of moral development and education
• Aristotle's teleological approach, grounded in the notion of the human telos, has been both influential and controversial
• Many contemporary ethicists have drawn on Aristotelian ideas while adapting them to address modern challenges and concerns

Criticisms and Modern Interpretations

• Some critics argue that Aristotle's ethics are too focused on the individual and neglect the social and political dimensions of the good life
• Feminists have criticized Aristotle's views on women as inherently deficient and irrational, challenging his conceptions of virtue and phronesis
• Aristotle's acceptance of slavery and elitist conception of citizenship are deeply problematic from a modern perspective
• The doctrine of the mean has been criticized as vague and unhelpful in resolving difficult moral dilemmas
• Some argue that Aristotle's ethics are too demanding and fail to accommodate moral luck and the complexities of human psychology
• Virtue ethicists have sought to revive Aristotelian themes while addressing these limitations
  • Alasdair MacIntyre and Rosalind Hursthouse have developed neo-Aristotelian approaches that emphasize practices, traditions, and moral exemplars
• Aristotle's eudaimonism has been interpreted in both subjectivist and objectivist ways, sparking debate about the nature of well-being