🏛️Arts of Classical Greece Unit 10 – Late Classical Greece: 400-323 BCE

Historical Context and Timeline

• Late Classical period of Ancient Greece spans from 400 BCE to 323 BCE
• Follows the High Classical period (450-400 BCE) and precedes the Hellenistic period (323-31 BCE)
• Marked by the end of the Peloponnesian War in 404 BCE, which resulted in the defeat of Athens by Sparta
• Sparta's hegemony over Greece was short-lived, lasting only until 371 BCE when they were defeated by Thebes at the Battle of Leuctra
• Rise of Macedon under Philip II, who conquered most of Greece by 338 BCE
• Alexander the Great, son of Philip II, embarked on his legendary conquests from 336 to 323 BCE, creating one of the largest empires of the ancient world
• Alexander's death in 323 BCE marked the end of the Late Classical period and the beginning of the Hellenistic era

Key Political Events and Figures

• Peloponnesian War (431-404 BCE) between Athens and Sparta, ending with Sparta's victory and the weakening of Athens
  • Resulted in the temporary oligarchic rule of the Thirty Tyrants in Athens
• Spartan hegemony challenged by Thebes, led by Epaminondas, who defeated Sparta at the Battle of Leuctra in 371 BCE
• Rise of Macedon under Philip II (r. 359-336 BCE)
  • Philip II reorganized the Macedonian army and employed innovative military tactics
  • Conquered most of Greece after defeating Athens and Thebes at the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BCE
• Alexander the Great (r. 336-323 BCE), son of Philip II, became king of Macedon and launched a series of conquests
  • Defeated the Persian Empire and reached as far as India
  • Founded numerous cities, including Alexandria in Egypt
• Demosthenes (384-322 BCE), Athenian statesman and orator, known for his opposition to Philip II of Macedon

Cultural and Social Developments

• Increased wealth disparity and social stratification in Greek city-states
• Growing importance of education, particularly in rhetoric and philosophy
  • Rise of professional teachers known as Sophists
• Emergence of new philosophical schools, such as Cynicism and Skepticism
• Increased interest in the study of the natural world and the development of scientific thought
• Expansion of Greek culture and language through Alexander's conquests, leading to the Hellenization of conquered territories
• Shift in religious practices, with the growing popularity of mystery cults and the deification of rulers (ruler cults)

Major Artistic Movements and Styles

• Late Classical sculpture characterized by increased naturalism, emotional intensity, and dynamic poses
  • Greater emphasis on the representation of movement and drapery
• Development of the "Lysippan" style, named after the sculptor Lysippos, which featured more slender and elongated proportions
• Emergence of the "Hellenistic Baroque" style in the late 4th century BCE, known for its dramatic and expressive qualities
• Innovations in painting, such as the use of shading and perspective to create the illusion of depth (skiagraphia)
• Increased production of luxury art objects, such as gold and silver vessels, reflecting the growing wealth of the elite
• Rise of the "Grotesque" style in minor arts, featuring exaggerated and distorted figures

Famous Works and Artists

• Lysippos (c. 390-300 BCE), sculptor known for his portraits of Alexander the Great and his introduction of the "Lysippan" style
  • Notable works include the "Apoxyomenos" (Scraper) and the "Farnese Hercules"
• Leochares (c. 350-320 BCE), sculptor famous for his statue of Apollo Belvedere
• Praxiteles (c. 400-330 BCE), sculptor renowned for his graceful and sensual figures
  • Notable works include the "Aphrodite of Knidos" and the "Hermes and the Infant Dionysus"
• Apelles (c. 375-300 BCE), painter, considered the greatest of his time, known for his portraits of Alexander the Great
• Zeuxis (c. 464-390 BCE), painter famous for his skill in creating illusionistic effects and his rivalry with Parrhasius

Technological and Architectural Advancements

• Improvements in shipbuilding and navigation, facilitating trade and military expeditions
• Advancements in siege warfare technology, such as the development of torsion-powered artillery (catapults and ballistae)
• Innovations in urban planning, with the creation of grid-like city layouts (Hippodamian plan)
  • Example: The city of Priene in Asia Minor
• Emergence of the Corinthian order in architecture, characterized by its ornate capital with acanthus leaves
• Construction of monumental theaters, such as the Theater of Epidaurus, known for its exceptional acoustics
• Development of the peristyle house, featuring a central courtyard surrounded by columns
• Advancements in water management, including the construction of aqueducts and fountains

Philosophical and Literary Contributions

• Plato (c. 428-348 BCE), philosopher and founder of the Academy in Athens
  • Notable works include "The Republic," "Symposium," and "Phaedo"
• Aristotle (384-322 BCE), philosopher and polymath, student of Plato and tutor of Alexander the Great
  • Notable works include "Nicomachean Ethics," "Politics," and "Poetics"
• Diogenes of Sinope (c. 412-323 BCE), philosopher and founder of Cynicism, known for his unconventional lifestyle and rejection of social norms
• Pyrrho of Elis (c. 360-270 BCE), philosopher and founder of Skepticism, emphasizing the importance of suspending judgment
• Menander (c. 342-290 BCE), Athenian playwright and one of the most famous representatives of New Comedy
  • Notable works include "Dyskolos" (The Misanthrope) and "Samia" (The Woman from Samos)

Legacy and Influence on Later Periods

• Spread of Greek culture and language throughout the Mediterranean and Near East due to Alexander's conquests, creating a lasting Hellenistic civilization
• Influence of Greek art on later artistic traditions, particularly in the Roman Empire and the Renaissance
  • Roman copies of Greek sculptures played a crucial role in preserving and transmitting Greek art
• Impact of Greek philosophy on the development of Western thought, with the works of Plato and Aristotle forming the basis for many subsequent philosophical discussions
• Contribution of Greek literature, particularly drama and poetry, to the development of literary genres and styles in later periods
• Adoption and adaptation of Greek architectural styles, such as the Corinthian order, in Roman and later Western architecture
• Role of Greek scientific and mathematical discoveries in shaping the foundations of modern science
  • Example: Euclid's "Elements," a seminal work in geometry