🏺Archaeology of Ancient Egypt Unit 5 – First Intermediate and Middle Kingdom Egypt

Historical Context

• The First Intermediate Period (2181-2055 BCE) marked a time of political decentralization and instability following the collapse of the Old Kingdom
  • Characterized by a weakening of central authority and the rise of regional powers (nomarchs)
• The Middle Kingdom (2055-1650 BCE) saw a reunification of Egypt under the 11th and 12th Dynasties
  • Considered a golden age of stability, prosperity, and cultural achievements
• The Middle Kingdom ended with the 13th Dynasty, which faced challenges from the Hyksos, a Semitic people from the Levant who eventually took control of Lower Egypt

Key Archaeological Sites

• Thebes (modern-day Luxor) emerged as a major political and religious center during the Middle Kingdom
  • Home to the temples of Karnak and Luxor, dedicated to the god Amun
• Beni Hasan, a necropolis in Middle Egypt, contains important rock-cut tombs of nomarchs from the Middle Kingdom
  • Tombs feature detailed wall paintings depicting daily life, military scenes, and trade
• The Fayum region saw significant development during the Middle Kingdom, with the construction of irrigation systems and the establishment of new settlements
• The fortresses of Buhen and Semna were built in Nubia to secure Egypt's southern border and control trade routes

Political Developments

• The 11th Dynasty, based in Thebes, reunified Egypt and established the Middle Kingdom
  • Mentuhotep II (2055-2004 BCE) is credited with the reunification and strengthening of central authority
• The 12th Dynasty, particularly under Amenemhat I and Senusret I, further consolidated power and expanded Egypt's borders
  • Established a strong central government and a more efficient administrative system
• The Middle Kingdom saw a shift in the balance of power between the pharaoh and the nobility
  • The pharaohs sought to limit the influence of regional rulers and maintain a centralized state
• Egypt expanded its control over Nubia during the Middle Kingdom, establishing a series of fortresses and trading posts along the Nile

Social Structure and Daily Life

• Egyptian society remained hierarchical, with the pharaoh at the top, followed by the nobility, priests, scribes, and commoners
• The Middle Kingdom saw the rise of a middle class, including artisans, merchants, and lower-level officials
  • This led to increased social mobility and a more complex social structure
• Agriculture remained the foundation of the economy, with the annual Nile floods providing fertile soil for crops
  • Farmers grew wheat, barley, flax, and vegetables, and raised cattle, sheep, and goats
• Scribes played a crucial role in the administration of the state, recording taxes, managing resources, and preserving knowledge
  • Literacy was highly valued, and scribal schools were established to train new generations of scribes

Art and Architecture

• Middle Kingdom art and architecture reflected the stability and prosperity of the period
• Statues of pharaohs and officials became more naturalistic, with a focus on individual features and expressions
  • The statue of Mentuhotep II from Deir el-Bahari is a notable example of this style
• Relief carvings in temples and tombs became more detailed and sophisticated
  • The tomb of Khnumhotep II at Beni Hasan features intricate scenes of daily life, hunting, and trade
• The Middle Kingdom saw the development of the rock-cut tomb, with elaborate designs and paintings
  • The tombs at Beni Hasan are prime examples of this architectural style
• Jewelry and decorative arts flourished, with intricate designs in gold, silver, and semi-precious stones

Religious Beliefs and Practices

• The Middle Kingdom saw the rise of Amun, a local god of Thebes, to national prominence
  • Amun was often combined with the sun god Ra to form Amun-Ra, the supreme deity
• Osiris, god of the underworld, and his wife Isis gained increasing importance in funerary beliefs
  • The Osiris myth, centering on death, resurrection, and the afterlife, became a central theme in Egyptian religion
• Temples became more elaborate and complex, with the development of the pylon gateway and the hypostyle hall
  • The temple of Amun at Karnak underwent significant expansion during the Middle Kingdom
• Funerary practices continued to evolve, with the use of coffin texts and the inclusion of more elaborate grave goods
  • The concept of the "Book of the Dead" began to take shape, providing spells and guidance for the deceased in the afterlife

Economic Systems

• Agriculture remained the backbone of the Egyptian economy, with the state controlling the distribution of land and resources
• The Middle Kingdom saw an expansion of trade, both within Egypt and with neighboring regions
  • Trade routes were established with Nubia, the Levant, and the eastern Mediterranean
• The state organized large-scale mining expeditions to the Sinai Peninsula for copper and turquoise
  • These resources were used in the production of tools, weapons, and luxury goods
• Craft specialization increased, with the development of distinct workshops for the production of ceramics, textiles, and metalwork
  • These workshops were often associated with temples or state institutions

Technological Advancements

• The Middle Kingdom saw improvements in irrigation and water management techniques
  • The construction of canals, dams, and reservoirs allowed for the expansion of agricultural land
• Innovations in bronze metallurgy led to the production of higher-quality tools and weapons
  • The use of tin-bronze allowed for the creation of harder and more durable objects
• The potter's wheel, introduced during the Old Kingdom, became more widely used, leading to the mass production of ceramic vessels
• Advances in stone-cutting techniques allowed for the creation of more elaborate and finely-crafted statues and reliefs
  • The use of copper chisels and bronze saws improved the precision and efficiency of stone-working
• The development of the shaduf, a counterbalanced water-lifting device, made irrigation more efficient
  • This technology helped to increase agricultural productivity and expand cultivated areas