8.7 The course of World War II
7 min read•august 20, 2024
World War II reshaped global power dynamics and redefined international relations. The conflict pitted the against the Allies, with major battles unfolding across Europe and the Pacific.
The war's turning points included the and invasion. Its aftermath saw Europe divided, the UN created, and the US and USSR emerge as superpowers, setting the stage for the .
Axis powers of WWII
- The Axis powers were the countries that fought against the Allies during World War II, which included , , and
- These countries had aggressive militaristic and expansionist ideologies that led to their alliance and involvement in the war
Germany under Nazi rule
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- Germany was under the control of the and its leader, , who became Chancellor in 1933 and Führer in 1934
- The Nazis promoted extreme nationalism, racism, and antisemitism, implementing discriminatory policies and persecuting Jews and other minorities
- Germany's aggressive foreign policy led to the invasion of Poland in 1939, triggering the start of World War II in Europe
- The Nazi regime's goal was to establish a "Third Reich" and dominate Europe through military conquests and the subjugation of other nations
Italy under Fascist control
- Italy was governed by the Fascist Party, led by , who became Prime Minister in 1922
- Fascist ideology emphasized nationalism, authoritarianism, and the supremacy of the state over individual rights
- Italy sought to expand its territories, invading Ethiopia in 1935 and later joining Germany in the Axis alliance
- Mussolini's decision to enter the war alongside Germany in 1940 ultimately led to Italy's defeat and his downfall
Japan's imperial ambitions
- Japan was ruled by an imperial government, with as the head of state
- The country had expansionist goals, seeking to establish dominance in Asia and secure resources for its growing economy
- Japan invaded and occupied various territories, including Manchuria (1931), China (1937), and Southeast Asian countries
- The Japanese attack on in 1941 brought the United States into the war, leading to the Pacific theater of World War II
Allied powers against Axis
- The were the nations that united to oppose the Axis powers during World War II
- The main Allied powers included , the United States, and the , along with various other countries that joined the fight against the Axis
Britain and the Commonwealth
- Great Britain, led by Prime Minister , was one of the first nations to stand against Nazi Germany
- The British Commonwealth, which included countries like Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, provided significant support and resources to the war effort
- Britain's resilience during the and the demonstrated its determination to resist German aggression
United States joins the war
- The United States initially maintained a policy of neutrality but provided material support to the Allies through programs like the Lend-Lease Act
- The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941 led to the U.S. declaration of war against Japan and its subsequent entry into the war against Germany and Italy
- American industrial might, military resources, and technological advancements played a crucial role in turning the tide of the war
Soviet Union's role
- The Soviet Union, led by , initially had a non-aggression pact with Germany but was invaded by Nazi forces in June 1941 ()
- The Soviet Red Army's tenacious defense and counteroffensives on the Eastern Front tied down a significant portion of German military resources
- The Soviet Union's victories in battles like Stalingrad and Kursk contributed to the eventual defeat of Nazi Germany
Major battles in Europe
Blitzkrieg tactics and invasions
- Germany employed the "" (lightning war) strategy, which involved rapid, coordinated attacks using tanks, infantry, and air support
- This tactic led to the swift conquest of Poland (1939), Denmark and Norway (1940), and the Low Countries and France (1940)
- Blitzkrieg allowed Germany to quickly overrun much of Western Europe and establish its dominance on the continent
Battle of Britain and the Blitz
- After the fall of France, Germany launched a massive air campaign against Britain in an attempt to achieve air superiority and force a surrender
- The Battle of Britain (July-October 1940) saw the British Royal Air Force successfully defend against German attacks, preventing a potential invasion
- The Blitz (September 1940-May 1941) was a prolonged bombing campaign against British cities, intended to break civilian morale but ultimately failing to do so
Operation Barbarossa on Eastern Front
- In June 1941, Germany launched Operation Barbarossa, a massive invasion of the Soviet Union, breaking the non-aggression pact between the two countries
- The Eastern Front became the largest and bloodiest theater of World War II, with millions of casualties on both sides
- Despite initial German successes, the Soviet Union's vast territory, harsh weather, and determined resistance eventually halted the German advance
D-Day invasion of Normandy
- On June 6, 1944, the Western Allies launched , the long-awaited invasion of Nazi-occupied France
- The D-Day landings on the beaches of Normandy involved a massive amphibious assault by American, British, and Canadian forces
- The successful establishment of a beachhead in Normandy marked the beginning of the liberation of Western Europe from Nazi control
Pacific theater of war
Pearl Harbor attack by Japan
- On December 7, 1941, Japan launched a surprise aerial attack on the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii
- The attack destroyed or damaged numerous American ships and aircraft, killing over 2,400 U.S. personnel
- The Pearl Harbor attack brought the United States into World War II, leading to a formal declaration of war against Japan and its allies
Island hopping campaign by Allies
- The Allies, primarily the United States, employed an "island hopping" strategy to advance towards the Japanese mainland
- This involved capturing key islands in the Pacific, bypassing heavily fortified Japanese positions, and establishing airfields and naval bases
- Major battles included (1942-1943), (1943), (1945), and (1945)
Atomic bombings of Japan
- In August 1945, the United States dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
- The unprecedented destructive power of these weapons, combined with the Soviet Union's declaration of war on Japan, led to Japan's surrender
- The atomic bombings remain controversial due to the massive loss of civilian life and long-term effects of radiation
Turning points and outcomes
Battle of Stalingrad in USSR
- The Battle of Stalingrad (August 1942-February 1943) was a major turning point on the Eastern Front
- Soviet forces successfully defended the city against a German siege, eventually surrounding and defeating the German 6th Army
- The German defeat at Stalingrad marked the beginning of the Soviet counteroffensive and the gradual pushing back of German forces
Battle of Midway in Pacific
- The (June 1942) was a decisive naval engagement between the United States and Japan
- The U.S. Navy intercepted and deciphered Japanese communications, allowing them to ambush the Japanese fleet near Midway Atoll
- The American victory at Midway halted Japan's advance in the Pacific and shifted the balance of naval power in favor of the Allies
Surrender of Germany and Italy
- Faced with advancing Allied forces from both the Western and Eastern Fronts, Germany surrendered unconditionally on May 8, 1945 ()
- Italy had already surrendered in September 1943 following Mussolini's fall from power, although German forces continued fighting in Italy until May 1945
Surrender of Japan and war's end
- After the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the Soviet Union's declaration of war, Japan announced its surrender on August 15, 1945
- The formal surrender ceremony took place on September 2, 1945, aboard the USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay, officially ending World War II
Aftermath and consequences
Division of Europe and Iron Curtain
- Following the war, Europe was divided into Western and Eastern spheres of influence, with the United States and the Soviet Union as the dominant powers
- The "" represented the ideological and physical boundary between the capitalist West and the communist East, setting the stage for the Cold War
Nuremberg Trials for war crimes
- The (1945-1946) were a series of military tribunals held to prosecute prominent Nazi leaders for war crimes and crimes against humanity
- The trials established important precedents in international law and helped to document the atrocities committed by the Nazi regime
Creation of United Nations
- The (UN) was established in 1945 as an intergovernmental organization to promote international cooperation and prevent future conflicts
- The UN Charter outlined the organization's goals, including maintaining international peace and security, developing friendly relations among nations, and promoting social progress and better living standards
Emergence of US and USSR superpowers
- The United States and the Soviet Union emerged as the two dominant superpowers following World War II
- The ideological differences between the capitalist U.S. and the communist USSR led to a global power struggle known as the Cold War
- The Cold War shaped international relations for decades, with both superpowers seeking to expand their influence through proxy wars, arms races, and competing ideologies
Key Terms to Review (33)
Adolf Hitler: Adolf Hitler was the leader of the National Socialist German Workers' Party (Nazi Party) and Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945. He rose to power during a time of economic instability and political chaos, promoting a fascist ideology that emphasized extreme nationalism, anti-Semitism, and the superiority of the Aryan race. His policies and aggressive expansionism played a central role in causing World War II and led to the horrific events of the Holocaust.
Allied Powers: The Allied Powers were a coalition of countries that opposed the Axis Powers during World War II, primarily including the United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and China. This alliance was crucial in coordinating military efforts, strategies, and resources to combat the aggression of Axis nations like Germany, Italy, and Japan. The cooperation among these nations facilitated significant victories and laid the groundwork for post-war reconstruction and international relations.
Atomic bombings of Japan: The atomic bombings of Japan refer to the United States' use of nuclear weapons against the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 during World War II. This decisive action aimed to bring a swift end to the war in the Pacific by forcing Japan's unconditional surrender, while also demonstrating the devastating power of nuclear technology. The bombings resulted in massive destruction and loss of life, marking a significant turning point in both military strategy and international relations.
Axis Powers: The Axis Powers were a coalition of countries led primarily by Germany, Italy, and Japan during World War II, formed with the aim of opposing the Allied Powers. This alliance sought to expand their territories and influence through military aggression, contributing significantly to the outbreak and course of the war.
Battle of Britain: The Battle of Britain was a significant military campaign during World War II in which the Royal Air Force defended the United Kingdom against large-scale attacks by Nazi Germany's air force, the Luftwaffe. This battle marked the first major campaign fought entirely by air forces and was crucial in preventing a German invasion of Britain, showcasing the importance of air superiority in modern warfare.
Battle of Midway: The Battle of Midway was a pivotal naval battle fought between June 4 and June 7, 1942, during World War II, in which the United States Navy decisively defeated an attacking fleet of the Imperial Japanese Navy. This battle is considered a turning point in the Pacific Theater, as it halted Japanese expansion and shifted the momentum of the war in favor of the Allies.
Battle of Stalingrad: The Battle of Stalingrad was a significant turning point during World War II, marking the Soviet Union's successful defense against the German Army from August 1942 to February 1943. This brutal confrontation is renowned for its fierce combat, high casualties, and the strategic importance it held in halting the German advance into Soviet territory, ultimately shifting the momentum of the war in favor of the Allies.
Benito Mussolini: Benito Mussolini was an Italian politician and journalist who founded the National Fascist Party and became the Prime Minister of Italy from 1922 until 1943. He played a significant role in the rise of fascism, promoting authoritarian governance, nationalism, and militarism, which contributed to the complex dynamics leading to global conflict.
Blitz: In the context of World War II, a blitz refers to a sudden and intense military attack, particularly the German air raids on British cities during the Battle of Britain. This tactic aimed to disrupt morale and damage critical infrastructure, showcasing the strategic use of aerial bombardment as a weapon of war.
Blitzkrieg: Blitzkrieg, meaning 'lightning war' in German, refers to a military strategy employed by the Nazis during World War II that emphasized rapid and surprise attacks using coordinated forces of infantry, tanks, and air support. This tactic allowed for quick victories and the overwhelming of enemy defenses, significantly impacting the dynamics of warfare and contributing to the early successes of Germany in the conflict.
Cold War: The Cold War was a prolonged period of geopolitical tension between the Soviet Union and the United States, along with their respective allies, from the end of World War II until the early 1990s. This conflict was characterized by ideological rivalry, nuclear arms races, and proxy wars, profoundly influencing global politics and economics.
D-Day: D-Day refers to June 6, 1944, when Allied forces launched a massive invasion of German-occupied France during World War II. This pivotal operation, known as Operation Overlord, marked the beginning of the liberation of Western Europe from Nazi control and involved the largest amphibious assault in history, with troops landing on five beachheads along the Normandy coast.
Emperor Hirohito: Emperor Hirohito was the 124th emperor of Japan, reigning from 1926 until his death in 1989. His reign encompassed significant events in Japanese history, including World War II, where he played a complex role as both a symbol of the state and an individual influenced by military leaders.
Fascism: Fascism is a far-right political ideology that emphasizes strong centralized power, dictatorial leadership, and often includes extreme nationalist sentiments. This ideology typically promotes the idea of the supremacy of the state over individual rights and often utilizes propaganda, militarism, and the suppression of opposition to maintain control. The rise of fascism in the early 20th century was closely linked to economic instability, social unrest, and a reaction against perceived threats from socialism and communism.
Germany: Germany is a country in Central Europe, known for its significant historical, cultural, and political influence on the world stage. Its industrialization in the 19th century set the foundation for its emergence as a major economic power, while its complex involvement in colonial pursuits during the scramble for Africa, participation in World War I, and subsequent Treaty of Versailles had lasting effects on its national identity and global relations, ultimately shaping the course of World War II.
Great Britain: Great Britain is the largest island in the British Isles and includes three countries: England, Scotland, and Wales. It played a central role during World War II as a leading Allied power, demonstrating resilience and military strength against the Axis powers.
Guadalcanal: Guadalcanal is a significant island in the Solomon Islands, known for being the site of one of the major battles in the Pacific Theater during World War II. The Guadalcanal Campaign marked the first major Allied offensive against Japanese forces and was a turning point in the war, shifting the momentum towards the Allies in their fight against Japan.
Iron curtain: The iron curtain refers to the political, military, and ideological barrier that divided Europe into two separate areas from the end of World War II until the end of the Cold War. This term symbolizes the stark contrast between Western democratic nations and Eastern communist countries, highlighting the growing tensions and divisions that emerged in the aftermath of World War II.
Italy: Italy is a European country known for its rich history, culture, and influence, particularly during the 20th century when it played a significant role in World War II. As a central player in the Axis Powers, Italy's involvement was marked by its initial aggression under Benito Mussolini and later struggles as the war turned against them. Italy's strategic geographical position also made it a focal point for military campaigns throughout the war.
Iwo Jima: Iwo Jima is a small volcanic island in the Pacific Ocean that was the site of a significant battle during World War II, specifically from February 19 to March 26, 1945. The battle represented a critical moment in the U.S. military campaign against Japan, as control of the island was essential for the strategic positioning of American forces in the region. The capture of Iwo Jima enabled Allied forces to launch airstrikes against the Japanese mainland and contributed to the eventual victory in the Pacific Theater.
Japan: Japan is an island nation in East Asia, known for its unique blend of traditional and modern culture. During World War II, Japan emerged as a major military power and played a pivotal role in the conflict, particularly in the Pacific Theater. The country’s imperial ambitions led to its involvement in various military campaigns, and its actions had profound consequences on the course of the war.
Joseph Stalin: Joseph Stalin was the leader of the Soviet Union from the mid-1920s until his death in 1953, known for his totalitarian regime and significant role in World War II and the subsequent division of Europe. He transformed the Soviet Union into a major world power through industrialization and collectivization, while also employing brutal methods including purges and state terror to eliminate opposition. His influence during and after the war helped shape the geopolitical landscape of Europe.
Nazi Party: The Nazi Party, officially known as the National Socialist German Workers' Party, was a far-right political party in Germany that rose to power in the early 20th century, primarily led by Adolf Hitler. The party promoted an aggressive form of nationalism, anti-Semitism, and totalitarianism, ultimately playing a crucial role in the events of World War II and the implementation of the Holocaust.
Nuremberg Trials: The Nuremberg Trials were a series of military tribunals held after World War II to prosecute prominent leaders of Nazi Germany for war crimes, crimes against humanity, and genocide. These trials established a precedent for how the international community addresses war crimes and laid the groundwork for future tribunals, emphasizing individual accountability for actions taken during wartime.
Okinawa: Okinawa is a Japanese island located in the East China Sea, known for being the site of one of the bloodiest battles during World War II. The Battle of Okinawa, fought between April and June 1945, was crucial for the Allies as they aimed to secure a base for the planned invasion of mainland Japan. The battle was characterized by intense combat, significant civilian casualties, and marked the final stages of the Pacific War.
Operation Barbarossa: Operation Barbarossa was the code name for Nazi Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union during World War II, launched on June 22, 1941. This ambitious military campaign aimed to conquer the western Soviet Union, eliminate Bolshevism, and secure vital resources for Germany. It marked a significant turning point in the war, leading to some of the largest and deadliest battles in history.
Operation Overlord: Operation Overlord was the codename for the Allied invasion of Nazi-occupied Western Europe during World War II, launched on June 6, 1944, known as D-Day. This massive military operation marked a pivotal moment in the war, leading to the liberation of France and eventually contributing to the defeat of Germany. The operation involved meticulous planning, coordination of various military branches, and the deployment of a vast number of troops and resources.
Pearl Harbor: Pearl Harbor refers to the U.S. naval base located on the Hawaiian island of Oahu, which was famously attacked by Japanese forces on December 7, 1941. This surprise military strike led to significant losses for the U.S. Pacific Fleet and marked a pivotal moment that prompted the United States to formally enter World War II, dramatically altering the course of the conflict.
Soviet Union: The Soviet Union was a socialist state that existed from 1922 to 1991, encompassing a vast territory across Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. It emerged after the Russian Revolution and became a major global superpower, playing a crucial role in shaping international politics, especially during and after World War II, as well as influencing conflicts like the Chinese Civil War. The Soviet Union's policies and actions significantly impacted global dynamics during the Cold War era.
Tarawa: Tarawa is an atoll in the central Pacific Ocean that was the site of a major battle during World War II, specifically in November 1943. The Battle of Tarawa was one of the first amphibious assaults in the Pacific Theater, marking a significant shift in U.S. military strategy as they moved from defensive actions to offensive operations against Japanese forces.
United Nations: The United Nations (UN) is an international organization founded in 1945 to promote peace, security, and cooperation among countries. It was created in the aftermath of World War II to prevent future conflicts and to address global issues, fostering diplomatic dialogue and humanitarian efforts. The UN plays a crucial role in various significant historical events and processes, particularly in relation to post-war reconstruction, decolonization, and the establishment of a new world order.
V-E Day: V-E Day, or Victory in Europe Day, is celebrated on May 8, 1945, marking the formal acceptance of Nazi Germany's unconditional surrender to the Allied forces. This pivotal moment signified the end of World War II in Europe, following years of intense conflict and suffering. The day brought widespread celebrations across Allied nations, symbolizing hope for peace and a new beginning in post-war Europe.
Winston Churchill: Winston Churchill was a British statesman, military leader, and Prime Minister who served during crucial periods of the 20th century, most notably during World War II. Known for his stirring speeches and unwavering resolve, Churchill's leadership was instrumental in rallying the British people during their darkest hours and shaping the post-war world.