Glossary

6.1 Portuguese and Spanish Empires in the Americas and Asia

4 min read•august 6, 2024

The Portuguese and Spanish empires expanded rapidly in the Americas and Asia during the 15th and 16th centuries. This expansion was driven by a desire for wealth, power, and the spread of Christianity, leading to the establishment of vast colonial territories and trade networks.

The conquest of the Americas by Spanish conquistadors like Cortés and Pizarro had profound impacts on Indigenous societies. Meanwhile, Portuguese explorers established trading posts across Asia, creating a global trade network that connected Europe, Asia, and the Americas.

Spanish Conquest and Administration in the Americas

Encomienda System and Colonial Administration

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  • granted Spanish colonists the right to demand tribute and forced labor from Indigenous populations in exchange for providing food, shelter, and instruction in the Catholic faith
  • Enabled the exploitation of Indigenous peoples and extraction of wealth from the Americas to Spain
  • Viceroyalties established as administrative divisions of the in the Americas (New Spain, Peru)
    • Governed by viceroys appointed by the Spanish monarch to oversee colonial affairs, maintain order, and ensure the flow of wealth to Spain
    • of New Spain encompassed present-day Mexico, Central America, and parts of the southwestern United States
    • Viceroyalty of Peru initially covered most of Spanish-controlled South America

Conquistadors and Their Impact

  • Conquistadors were Spanish explorers, soldiers, and adventurers who led expeditions to the Americas during the 15th and 16th centuries, seeking wealth, power, and the spread of Catholicism
  • led the (1519-1521), capturing the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan and bringing Mexico under Spanish control
    • Cortés formed alliances with indigenous groups who were hostile to the Aztecs, such as the Tlaxcalans, which played a crucial role in his success
  • led the (1532-1572), capturing the Inca emperor Atahualpa and gaining control over vast territories in South America
    • Pizarro exploited the Inca civil war between Atahualpa and his half-brother Huáscar to weaken the empire before launching his conquest
  • The conquests of the Aztec and Inca Empires resulted in the destruction of Indigenous societies, the imposition of Spanish rule, and the extraction of wealth through the encomienda system and forced labor in mines (silver in Potosí)

Bartolomé de las Casas and Criticism of the Encomienda System

  • was a Spanish Dominican friar who became a vocal critic of the encomienda system and the mistreatment of Indigenous peoples in the Americas
  • Argued that the Indigenous peoples were rational human beings with souls, deserving of humane treatment and the right to live freely
  • His advocacy led to the passage of the , which aimed to limit the power of the encomienda system and improve the treatment of Indigenous peoples, although the laws were not effectively enforced
  • Las Casas' writings (A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies) brought attention to the abuses committed by the Spanish in the Americas and sparked debates about the morality of colonialism and the treatment of Indigenous peoples

Portuguese Empire in Asia

Spice Trade and the Estado da India

  • Portuguese explorers, driven by the desire to access the lucrative spice trade and establish direct trade routes to Asia, began navigating around the coast of Africa in the 15th century
  • 's voyage around the Cape of Good Hope and across the Indian Ocean (1497-1499) marked the beginning of direct European trade with Asia and the establishment of the in the East
  • The Portuguese established the (State of India), a network of trading posts, fortified settlements, and naval bases along the coasts of Africa, the Middle East, India, and Southeast Asia
    • Key trading posts included Goa (India), Malacca (Malaysia), and Macau (China)
    • The Estado da India allowed Portugal to control the spice trade and extract wealth from Asia, while also serving as a base for Christian missionary activities

Manila Galleons and the Global Trade Network

  • The were Spanish trading ships that sailed annually between Manila (Philippines) and Acapulco (Mexico) from 1565 to 1815
  • These ships facilitated the exchange of goods between Asia and the Americas, connecting the Spanish Empire's possessions in the East Indies with its American colonies
    • Asian goods (spices, silk, porcelain) were transported to the Americas, while American silver was brought to Asia
  • The Manila Galleons played a crucial role in the development of a global trade network, linking the economies of Asia, the Americas, and Europe
    • The influx of American silver into Asia, particularly China, had significant economic and social impacts, such as the monetization of the Chinese economy and increased demand for Chinese goods in Europe

Division of the New World

Treaty of Tordesillas and the Demarcation of Spanish and Portuguese Claims

  • The (1494) was an agreement between Spain and Portugal, mediated by Pope Alexander VI, that divided the New World into two spheres of influence
    • The treaty established a line of demarcation 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands
    • Lands to the east of the line were allocated to Portugal, while lands to the west were allocated to Spain
  • The treaty aimed to resolve disputes between the two Iberian powers over newly discovered territories and to prevent conflict in their efforts to explore and colonize the New World
  • The division of the New World had significant consequences for the colonization of the Americas and the development of the Spanish and Portuguese Empires
    • Spain focused on the conquest and settlement of the Americas, establishing vast colonial possessions in Mexico, Central America, and South America
    • Portugal concentrated on the exploration and colonization of Brazil, which fell within its sphere of influence according to the Treaty of Tordesillas, as well as the establishment of trading posts in Africa and Asia

Key Terms to Review (20)

Atlantic Slave Trade: The Atlantic Slave Trade was the forced transportation of millions of enslaved Africans to the Americas from the 16th to the 19th centuries, forming a critical part of the transatlantic economy. This brutal system not only fueled economic growth in European colonies but also had lasting impacts on societies and cultures across the Atlantic world, influencing social hierarchies and racial dynamics that persist today.
Audiencia: An audiencia was a high court or administrative body in the Spanish and Portuguese empires, responsible for overseeing judicial matters and governance in colonial territories. These institutions were crucial for enforcing laws, resolving disputes, and maintaining order within the vast and diverse regions of the Americas and Asia. They acted as a vital link between the local populations and the imperial authorities, helping to implement colonial policies and manage resources.
Bartolomé de las Casas: Bartolomé de las Casas was a Spanish Dominican friar, historian, and missionary who became one of the first advocates for the rights of Indigenous peoples in the Americas during the early colonial period. He is best known for his passionate denunciation of the mistreatment of Native Americans by Spanish colonizers and for his efforts to reform colonial policies that perpetuated exploitation and violence against Indigenous populations.
Christian missionary efforts: Christian missionary efforts refer to the organized initiatives by various Christian denominations to spread their faith and convert non-Christians, especially during the Age of Exploration. These efforts were particularly prominent in the Portuguese and Spanish Empires, where missionaries traveled to the Americas and Asia to establish missions, promote Christianity, and educate indigenous populations. The combination of religious zeal and imperial ambitions often intertwined, as the conversion of souls was seen as a way to legitimize colonization and expand European influence.
Columbian Exchange: The Columbian Exchange refers to the widespread transfer of plants, animals, foods, human populations, diseases, and culture between the Americas and the Old World following Christopher Columbus's voyages in the late 15th century. This exchange significantly impacted societies and economies across continents, leading to profound cultural and biological changes that shaped the modern world.
Conquest of the Aztec Empire: The conquest of the Aztec Empire refers to the military campaign led by Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés between 1519 and 1521, which resulted in the fall of the powerful Mesoamerican civilization centered in present-day Mexico. This event marked a significant moment in history, as it led to the establishment of Spanish colonial rule in the region and had lasting effects on Indigenous populations and global trade networks.
Conquest of the Inca Empire: The conquest of the Inca Empire refers to the Spanish military expedition led by Francisco Pizarro in the early 16th century that resulted in the downfall of one of the largest and most advanced civilizations in South America. This event marked a significant moment in the establishment of Spanish colonial rule and had profound impacts on indigenous populations, economies, and cultures in the region.
Creole culture: Creole culture refers to the unique blend of indigenous, African, and European influences that developed in the Americas, particularly in the context of colonial societies. This cultural fusion emerged as a result of colonization by the Spanish and Portuguese empires, leading to new languages, culinary traditions, art forms, and social practices that reflect the diverse backgrounds of the people living in these regions.
Encomienda system: The encomienda system was a labor system instituted by the Spanish crown in the Americas during the colonization period, allowing colonists to demand tribute and forced labor from Indigenous peoples in exchange for protection and Christianization. This system facilitated the establishment of Spanish control over native populations, impacting social, economic, and cultural dynamics in the New World.
Estado da india: The estado da india, or 'State of India', refers to the Portuguese colonial empire in Asia, particularly focused on the territories and trade routes in the Indian Ocean during the 16th to 18th centuries. This colonial administration was pivotal for establishing Portuguese dominance in spice trade and naval power, connecting Europe with Asia and the Americas.
Francisco Pizarro: Francisco Pizarro was a Spanish conquistador best known for leading the expedition that conquered the Inca Empire in present-day Peru during the 16th century. His actions not only altered the course of South American history but also had profound effects on European interests in the New World, emphasizing the impact of exploration and conquest during this transformative era.
Hernán Cortés: Hernán Cortés was a Spanish Conquistador known for leading the expedition that resulted in the fall of the Aztec Empire in the early 16th century. His conquests in Mexico played a crucial role in the Age of Discovery, highlighting the impact of European exploration on indigenous populations and altering the course of history in both Europe and the Americas.
Manila galleons: Manila galleons were Spanish trading ships that sailed across the Pacific Ocean between Manila in the Philippines and Acapulco in Mexico from the 16th to the 19th centuries. These ships played a crucial role in connecting the Americas with Asia, facilitating the flow of goods, culture, and people during the period of colonial expansion by European powers, particularly Spain.
New Laws of 1542: The New Laws of 1542 were a set of regulations established by King Charles I of Spain aimed at reforming the treatment of Indigenous peoples in the Spanish colonies of the Americas. These laws sought to limit the power of encomenderos, who were granted land and labor from Indigenous people, and aimed to protect the rights of the Indigenous population, reflecting the growing criticism of colonial exploitation.
Portuguese Empire: The Portuguese Empire was one of the first global empires, founded in the 15th century, characterized by its extensive maritime exploration and colonization of territories across Africa, Asia, and South America. It played a crucial role in shaping global trade networks and establishing the foundations of European colonialism, marked by technological advancements in navigation and shipbuilding that enabled long-distance sea travel.
Spanish Empire: The Spanish Empire was one of the largest empires in history, spanning across the Americas, Asia, and parts of Europe from the late 15th century until the early 19th century. It was characterized by extensive exploration, colonization, and the spread of Spanish culture and Catholicism, all facilitated by technological advancements in navigation and maritime exploration.
Syncretism: Syncretism is the blending of different religious or cultural beliefs and practices into a cohesive system. This phenomenon often arises when diverse cultures interact, leading to the incorporation of elements from one belief system into another, resulting in new religious or cultural expressions that reflect a hybrid identity.
Treaty of Tordesillas: The Treaty of Tordesillas was an agreement made in 1494 between Spain and Portugal, dividing newly discovered lands outside Europe. This treaty aimed to resolve disputes over newly explored territories and establish a line of demarcation, with Spain claiming lands to the west and Portugal to the east. The treaty had profound implications for European colonization and the geopolitical landscape, shaping the way European powers interacted with both each other and indigenous populations.
Vasco da Gama: Vasco da Gama was a Portuguese explorer who played a crucial role in the Age of Discovery, most notably for being the first person to sail directly from Europe to India around the Cape of Good Hope in 1498. His voyages opened up new maritime trade routes and significantly impacted European interactions with Asia and Africa, paving the way for the expansion of Portuguese influence and the establishment of a global trading network.
Viceroyalty: A viceroyalty is a political unit ruled by a viceroy, who is the representative of the monarch in a colonial territory. This system was crucial in the administration of vast overseas empires, particularly for the Spanish and Portuguese in the Americas and Asia, allowing centralized control over distant lands while maintaining local governance.
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