Archaeology of the Viking Age Unit 10 ReviewViking Runes and Literacy

Origins and Development of Viking Runes

• Viking runes, also known as futhark, originated from the earlier Germanic runic alphabets around the 2nd century AD
• The earliest runic inscriptions were found on artifacts such as weapons, tools, and jewelry from the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD
• The Elder Futhark, the oldest form of runic alphabet, consisted of 24 characters and was used until the 8th century
• The Younger Futhark emerged in the 8th century as a simplified version of the Elder Futhark, reducing the number of characters to 16
  • This simplification was likely due to changes in language and the need for easier carving on various materials
• The Anglo-Saxon futhorc, a variant of the Elder Futhark, was used in England from the 5th to the 11th centuries and included additional characters
• Runes were primarily carved on wood, bone, stone, and metal objects, with few examples of runic inscriptions on parchment or paper
• The development of Viking runes was influenced by the spread of Christianity and the adoption of the Latin alphabet in the late Viking Age

Types of Runic Alphabets

• The Elder Futhark (2nd-8th centuries) was the oldest runic alphabet, consisting of 24 characters
  • It was divided into three groups of eight characters each, known as ættir
• The Younger Futhark (8th-12th centuries) was a simplified version of the Elder Futhark, with only 16 characters
  • It was further divided into two main variants: the Danish runes (long-branch) and the Swedish-Norwegian runes (short-twig)
• The Anglo-Saxon futhorc (5th-11th centuries) was used in England and included additional characters, totaling 26 to 33 runes
• The Medieval runes (12th-15th centuries) were an expanded version of the Younger Futhark, with additional characters for Old Norse sounds
• The Dalecarlian runes, a late runic alphabet, were used in the Swedish province of Dalarna until the early 20th century
• Some runic alphabets included variant forms of certain characters, known as bind-runes, which combined two or more runes into a single character
• Each runic character had a name, often associated with a specific word or concept (Fehu - wealth, Uruz - aurochs, Thurisaz - giant)

Runic Inscriptions: Where and What

• Runic inscriptions have been found throughout the Viking world, including Scandinavia, the British Isles, Iceland, Greenland, and even parts of Eastern Europe and Russia
• Common objects bearing runic inscriptions include weapons (swords, spearheads, shields), tools (knives, axes, combs), jewelry (brooches, pendants, rings), and everyday items (cups, spoons, gaming pieces)
• Runes were also carved on stone monuments, such as runestones, which often commemorated the dead or marked important events
  • The Jelling stones in Denmark, erected by King Harald Bluetooth in the 10th century, are among the most famous runestones
• Runic inscriptions on wooden objects, such as sticks, boards, and furniture, have been preserved in waterlogged environments (Bryggen in Bergen, Norway)
• Some runic inscriptions are found on church walls, crosses, and other religious objects, demonstrating the overlap between pagan and Christian traditions
• The content of runic inscriptions varies, including names, dedications, ownership marks, magical formulas, and short messages or poetry
• Runic graffiti has been discovered in various locations, such as the Hagia Sophia in Istanbul, indicating the presence of Viking travelers and mercenaries

Runes in Daily Life and Trade

• Runes were used for practical purposes in daily life, such as marking ownership on personal belongings (combs, tools, cups)
• Merchants and craftsmen used runes to label their products or to indicate the weight or value of goods
  • Lead weights with runic inscriptions have been found in Viking Age trading centers (Hedeby, Birka)
• Runes were carved on wooden tags or sticks to serve as labels, receipts, or personal messages in trade transactions
• Some runic inscriptions on jewelry and high-status objects suggest they were used as gifts or tokens of alliances between individuals or families
• Runic inscriptions on weapons and armor could indicate the owner's name, the maker's mark, or a magical formula for protection in battle
• Gaming pieces, such as chess pieces or dice, sometimes bore runic inscriptions, possibly related to gaming strategies or luck
• Runes were also used for administrative purposes, such as recording laws, treaties, or property boundaries, although few examples have survived

Magical and Religious Uses of Runes

• In Norse mythology, the god Odin is credited with discovering the runes through a self-sacrifice ritual, hanging from the world tree Yggdrasil for nine nights
• Runes were believed to hold magical powers and were used in various rituals and spells for protection, healing, cursing, and divination
• Some runic inscriptions contain magical formulas or incantations, such as the "alu" formula, which may have been used for protection or to invoke supernatural powers
• Runes were carved on amulets and talismans to ward off evil spirits or to bring good luck and prosperity
  • Thor's hammers, a common Viking Age pendant, often featured runic inscriptions
• Certain runes were associated with specific deities or mythological figures, such as the Tiwaz rune with the god Tyr or the Ingwaz rune with the god Freyr
• Runes were used in funerary contexts, carved on grave markers or burial objects, possibly to ensure a safe passage to the afterlife or to protect the deceased
• Some runic inscriptions on weapons and armor suggest they were used in rituals or ceremonies related to warfare and battle
• The practice of divination using runes, known as "runecasting," involved inscribing runes on small objects (wood, stone, or bone) and casting them to interpret their meanings

Literacy and Writing Culture in Viking Society

• Literacy in Viking society was not widespread, and most people likely relied on oral traditions for communication and information sharing
• However, the presence of runic inscriptions suggests that some level of literacy existed among certain groups, such as the elite, merchants, and craftsmen
• Runes were primarily used for short inscriptions and messages rather than extensive texts or literature
  • The longest known runic inscription, the Rök runestone in Sweden, contains about 760 characters
• The skill of runic writing was likely passed down within families or through apprenticeships in specific trades (metalworking, woodcarving)
• The introduction of Christianity and the Latin alphabet in the late Viking Age gradually led to the decline of runic writing
  • Some medieval manuscripts contain runic inscriptions alongside Latin text, suggesting a period of coexistence and transition
• Runic literacy coexisted with other forms of visual communication, such as pictorial carvings and symbolism in Viking art and iconography
• The use of runes in graffiti and informal inscriptions suggests a more widespread familiarity with the script, even if formal literacy was limited
• The lack of extensive runic literature or manuscripts may be due to the perishable nature of the materials used (wood, bone) or the preference for oral traditions

Decoding and Interpreting Runic Texts

• Interpreting runic inscriptions involves a combination of linguistic, historical, and archaeological knowledge
• The first step in decoding a runic text is to identify the specific runic alphabet used (Elder Futhark, Younger Futhark, Anglo-Saxon futhorc)
• Runic characters can vary in form and orientation, requiring careful examination and comparison with standardized charts or references
• Some runic inscriptions use abbreviations, ligatures (combined characters), or cryptic symbols, which can make deciphering more challenging
• The language of runic inscriptions is primarily Old Norse or its regional dialects, but some inscriptions may include elements of other languages (Latin, Old English)
• The context and location of the runic inscription, as well as the object it is found on, can provide clues to its meaning and purpose
• Damage, weathering, or incomplete inscriptions can hinder the interpretation process, requiring the use of comparative analysis and educated guesswork
• Some runic inscriptions use coded or cryptic language, such as the "þistill, mistill, kistill" formula, which may have served as a magical or protective invocation
• Interpreting the meaning and significance of a runic inscription often requires an understanding of Viking culture, society, and beliefs

Legacy and Modern Interest in Viking Runes

• The study of Viking runes and runology has been a subject of academic interest since the 17th century, with early scholars such as Ole Worm and Johannes Bureus
• In the 19th and early 20th centuries, the Romantic and Nationalist movements in Europe fueled a renewed interest in Viking history and culture, including the study of runes
• The decipherment of runic inscriptions has contributed to our understanding of Viking language, society, and religion
• Runic inscriptions serve as valuable primary sources for historical and archaeological research on the Viking Age
• The use of runes in modern popular culture, such as in fantasy literature, games, and tattoos, has led to a broader public interest in the subject
  • J.R.R. Tolkien, a scholar of Old Norse and Anglo-Saxon literature, incorporated elements of runic writing in his fictional works (The Hobbit, The Lord of the Rings)
• Some modern Pagan and Heathen religious movements have adopted the use of runes for spiritual and magical purposes, often drawing on historical and mythological associations
• The study of runes has also been subject to misappropriation and misuse by far-right and white supremacist groups, who often distort the historical and cultural context of runic symbols
• Efforts to promote accurate and responsible scholarship on Viking runes and runology continue to be important in countering misconceptions and misrepresentations