9.3 Neolithic cultures in the Americas
3 min read•july 30, 2024
The Neolithic period in the Americas marked a shift from hunting and gathering to farming. This change led to the rise of complex societies across North, Central, and South America, each adapting to their unique environments.
These cultures developed advanced farming techniques, created intricate pottery and textiles, and built impressive structures. Their innovations in agriculture, like the cultivation of maize and potatoes, supported growing populations and the emergence of cities.
Neolithic Cultures in the Americas
Geographic Distribution
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- North America: , , and Mississippian cultures (Eastern Woodlands), (Anasazi), , and Mogollon cultures (Southwest and northern Mexico)
- Mesoamerica (present-day Mexico and Central America): , , , and civilizations
- South America: , , , and (Andean region), (Amazon Basin)
Timeline and Duration
- Began around 8,000 BCE
- Lasted until the arrival of European colonizers in the 15th and 16th centuries CE
- Spanned several millennia, allowing for the development of diverse and complex societies
Adaptations of Neolithic Societies in the Americas
Diverse Environments and Subsistence Strategies
- Adapted to a wide range of environments (Arctic tundra, Amazon rainforest)
- Developed unique strategies for subsistence and resource management
- Eastern Woodlands (North America): Combination of hunting, gathering, and agriculture, focusing on cultivating the "Three Sisters" (maize, squash, and beans)
- American Southwest: Ancestral Puebloans developed sophisticated and built multi-story dwellings () to adapt to the arid environment
Advanced Agricultural Techniques
- Mesoamerica (Maya and Zapotec): Developed , , and to support large urban centers in tropical lowlands and highlands
- Andean region (South America): Adapted to high-altitude living by domesticating animals (llamas and alpacas) and using specialized agricultural practices like raised fields () in the Lake Titicaca Basin
Technological Innovations in the Americas
Domestication of Native Plant Species
- Critical development in the Neolithic Americas
- Provided a stable food source, enabling population growth and cultural complexity
- Examples: Maize, squash, beans, potatoes, and quinoa
Pottery and Textiles
- Pottery: Distinct styles and techniques developed in different regions ( in Peru, in North America)
- Textiles: Sophisticated production techniques using cotton, wool, and plant fibers to create intricate woven and dyed fabrics
Metallurgy and Monumental Architecture
- : Emerged in some Neolithic cultures, particularly in the Andean region (Moche and Nazca worked with gold, silver, and copper)
- Monumental architecture: Reflects increasing social complexity and labor organization ( in North America, pyramids and temples in Mesoamerica)
Implications of the Neolithic Transition in the Americas
Social and Economic Changes
- Emergence of more sedentary, hierarchical societies
- Development of specialized occupations (artisans, traders, religious leaders)
- Surplus food production supported population growth and the rise of urban centers (Teotihuacan in Mesoamerica, Tiwanaku in the Andean region)
- Development of complex facilitating the exchange of goods, ideas, and cultural practices across vast distances
Religious and Artistic Developments
- Religious and ceremonial practices became increasingly elaborate and institutionalized
- Construction of monumental religious architecture
- Emergence of powerful religious elites ()
- Development of distinct artistic traditions reflecting cultural diversity and creativity (Moche pottery, Nazca textiles, Olmec stone carvings)
Americas vs Other Regions: Neolithic Developments
Similarities
- Similar pattern of agricultural intensification, population growth, and increasing social complexity
- Domestication of native plant and animal species (maize, potatoes, and llamas in the Americas; wheat, rice, and cattle in the Fertile Crescent and Yangtze River Valley)
- Emergence of pottery and , although with varied styles and techniques
- Rise of urban centers and complex societies (Mesoamerica and Andean region comparable to Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Indus Valley)
Differences
- Neolithic transition occurred later in the Americas compared to the Near East and China
- Developed in relative isolation from Afro-Eurasia, resulting in unique cultural trajectories and adaptations
- Absence of certain Old World domesticates (horses and cattle) in the pre-Columbian Americas distinguished Neolithic developments from other parts of the world
Key Terms to Review (41)
Adena: The Adena culture refers to a prehistoric Native American civilization that flourished in the Ohio Valley from approximately 1000 BCE to 200 CE. Known for their earthen mounds, elaborate burial practices, and artistry, the Adena played a crucial role in the development of early complex societies in the Americas, showcasing an advanced understanding of agriculture, trade, and social organization.
Alpaca domestication: Alpaca domestication refers to the process of selectively breeding and raising alpacas for various human uses, particularly in the Andes region of South America. This domestication has allowed for the development of a reliable source of fiber, meat, and companionship, significantly impacting the lifestyle and economy of the cultures in that area. Alpacas were among the first domesticated animals in this region, playing a crucial role in the agricultural and pastoral practices of Neolithic societies.
Ancestral Puebloans: The Ancestral Puebloans were an ancient Native American culture that thrived in the Four Corners region of the United States from approximately 100 AD to 1300 AD. Known for their remarkable stone cliff dwellings and intricate pottery, this society adapted to the arid environment through advanced agricultural techniques, including irrigation and the cultivation of maize. Their architectural and artistic achievements reflect a deep connection to their surroundings and a complex social structure.
Cahokia: Cahokia was a major pre-Columbian Native American city located near modern-day St. Louis, Missouri, known for its sophisticated urban planning and monumental earthworks. It flourished between 600 and 1400 CE and is often considered one of the most significant centers of Mississippian culture, showcasing advanced agricultural practices, trade networks, and social hierarchies.
Camellones: Camellones are raised agricultural beds used in ancient farming practices, primarily associated with Neolithic cultures in the Americas. These raised beds were designed to improve drainage and enhance crop production, allowing for sustainable agriculture in various environments. This technique reflects a significant adaptation to local conditions and showcases the ingenuity of early agricultural societies.
Chaco Canyon: Chaco Canyon is an archaeological site located in northwestern New Mexico, known for its monumental architecture and as a major center of Ancestral Puebloan culture from AD 900 to 1150. It served as a hub for trade, politics, and ceremonial activities, showcasing advanced agricultural practices and a sophisticated social organization during a significant period of development in the Americas.
Chavín: Chavín refers to a significant pre-Columbian culture that emerged in the Andean region of Peru around 900 BCE and lasted until about 200 BCE. This culture is known for its distinctive art, architecture, and religious practices that influenced later civilizations in the region. The Chavín civilization developed around the Chavín de Huantar site, which served as a major ceremonial center and a hub for trade and cultural exchange.
Chiefdoms: Chiefdoms are a form of social organization characterized by hierarchical political structures led by a chief, who often has authority over multiple communities or settlements. This system represents an intermediate stage between simple bands or tribes and complex states, with social stratification based on kinship ties and centralized leadership that manages resources and trade.
Hohokam: The Hohokam were an ancient Native American culture that thrived in the present-day southwestern United States, particularly in the Sonoran Desert of Arizona, from approximately 300 BC to 1500 AD. They are well-known for their advanced irrigation systems, intricate pottery, and the establishment of large settlements, highlighting their significant contributions to the Neolithic cultures in the Americas.
Hopewell: Hopewell refers to a complex and influential culture that emerged in the eastern United States around 200 BCE and lasted until approximately 500 CE. Known for their elaborate burial mounds and earthworks, the Hopewell culture was characterized by extensive trade networks, sophisticated craftsmanship, and significant ritual practices that linked various tribes across vast distances.
Hopewell Earthworks: Hopewell Earthworks are large, complex geometric earth structures created by the Hopewell culture between 200 B.C. and 500 A.D. in the eastern United States. These monumental constructions, which include mounds and enclosures, served various purposes such as ceremonial sites, burial locations, and possibly astronomical observatories, reflecting the intricate social and spiritual life of the Hopewell people.
Hopewell Incised Designs: Hopewell incised designs refer to the intricate and artistic motifs found on pottery and other artifacts created by the Hopewell culture, which thrived in the Americas from around 200 BCE to 500 CE. These designs often include geometric patterns, stylized figures, and representations of animals, reflecting the cultural and spiritual beliefs of the Hopewell people. The craftsmanship of these incised designs highlights the importance of artistic expression within their society, as well as their connections to trade networks and rituals.
Intensive irrigation: Intensive irrigation refers to the agricultural practice of applying large amounts of water to crops to maximize yields in a specific area. This method involves the use of sophisticated systems like canals, ditches, and sometimes modern technology to ensure that water is efficiently distributed. In the context of early agricultural societies, especially in the Americas, intensive irrigation played a vital role in supporting larger populations and more complex societies by increasing food production.
Irrigation systems: Irrigation systems are methods used to supply water to crops and agricultural lands, allowing for more efficient farming practices. These systems played a crucial role in the transition from nomadic lifestyles to settled agricultural societies, enabling the growth of surplus crops and supporting larger populations. By providing reliable water sources, irrigation systems significantly influenced social structures, trade, and technological advancements in various cultures.
Llama domestication: Llama domestication refers to the process of taming and breeding llamas for human use, primarily as pack animals and sources of wool, meat, and hides. This practice emerged in the Andean regions of South America, where llamas played a crucial role in the development of early agricultural societies, facilitating trade and transportation across difficult terrains.
Maize domestication: Maize domestication refers to the process through which wild grasses, particularly teosinte, were cultivated and selectively bred to produce modern maize, or corn, which is a staple crop in many cultures. This transformation, which began over 9,000 years ago in Mesoamerica, not only involved genetic changes in the plant but also significantly influenced agricultural practices, social structures, and economies of Neolithic cultures in the Americas.
Marajoara culture: Marajoara culture refers to an advanced pre-Columbian civilization that thrived on Marajó Island at the confluence of the Amazon and Tocantins Rivers from approximately 400 to 1400 CE. This culture is significant for its complex societal structures, monumental earthen mounds, and intricate ceramic art, which reflect both agricultural innovation and sophisticated social organization.
Maya: The Maya refers to a Mesoamerican civilization known for its advanced writing system, impressive architectural feats, and sophisticated understanding of astronomy and mathematics. This culture flourished in present-day Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, and Honduras, particularly during the Classic Period from around 250 to 900 CE, leaving a significant legacy that influences the region even today.
Maya priest-kings: Maya priest-kings were the ruling elite in ancient Maya society, holding both political and religious authority. These leaders were often seen as intermediaries between the gods and the people, responsible for conducting rituals and ceremonies to ensure agricultural fertility and societal stability. Their dual role as both priests and kings allowed them to wield significant influence over their communities, making them pivotal figures in Maya culture.
Metallurgy: Metallurgy is the branch of science and engineering that deals with the properties of metals and their production processes. This discipline has been crucial in the development of technology and tools throughout history, significantly impacting early societies by enabling advancements in agriculture, weaponry, and social structures.
Mississippian Culture: The Mississippian culture was a complex prehistoric Native American civilization that flourished in the southeastern United States from approximately 800 CE to 1600 CE. Known for its advanced agricultural practices, monumental earthworks, and elaborate social hierarchies, this culture played a significant role in shaping the regional landscape and interactions among various indigenous groups.
Moche: The Moche were an ancient civilization that flourished along the northern coast of Peru from around 100 to 800 CE. Known for their advanced agricultural techniques, intricate pottery, and monumental architecture, the Moche significantly influenced the cultural landscape of pre-Columbian America. Their society was marked by a complex political structure and a deep connection to the Andean environment.
Moche Polychrome Ceramics: Moche polychrome ceramics are intricately painted pottery produced by the Moche culture in ancient Peru, renowned for their vibrant colors and detailed iconography. These ceramics played a crucial role in Moche society, serving both functional and ritualistic purposes while showcasing the culture's artistic skills and complex social structure.
Mogollon Culture: The Mogollon Culture refers to a prehistoric Native American cultural group that thrived in the Southwestern United States, primarily in present-day New Mexico and Arizona, from around 200 CE to 1400 CE. This culture is characterized by its distinct pottery styles, cliff dwellings, and agricultural practices, showcasing an evolution from nomadic lifestyles to more settled communities as they began to cultivate crops such as maize.
Nazca: Nazca refers to an ancient culture that thrived in southern Peru between 100 BCE and 800 CE, known for its remarkable achievements in pottery, textiles, and agriculture. This culture is especially famous for the Nazca Lines, a series of large geoglyphs etched into the desert floor, showcasing their artistic and possibly ceremonial significance.
Olmec: The Olmec were one of the earliest known civilizations in Mesoamerica, flourishing from around 1400 to 400 BCE. They are often referred to as the 'mother culture' of later Mesoamerican societies due to their significant contributions to art, architecture, and cultural practices that influenced future civilizations such as the Maya and Aztecs.
Potato domestication: Potato domestication refers to the process through which wild potato species were cultivated and selectively bred for desirable traits, transforming them into the staple food source known today. This agricultural innovation occurred primarily in the Andean region of South America and played a crucial role in the development of Neolithic cultures, influencing social structures, dietary practices, and agricultural methods.
Pottery making: Pottery making is the craft of shaping clay into various forms and then hardening it through firing, resulting in durable objects like vessels and decorative items. This technique is significant as it marks a major development in human technology and culture, allowing for improved storage, cooking, and art across various societies.
Pueblos: Pueblos are traditional adobe and stone dwellings constructed by Indigenous peoples in the Southwestern United States, particularly associated with the Ancestral Puebloans. These multi-storied structures were built to accommodate extended families and often featured communal spaces, reflecting the social organization and cultural practices of their inhabitants.
Raised fields: Raised fields are agricultural practices that involve the construction of elevated beds or platforms to cultivate crops, primarily seen in wetland or flood-prone areas. This technique improves drainage, increases soil fertility, and can help retain moisture, making it particularly beneficial in regions where traditional farming may struggle due to poor drainage or flooding. Raised fields represent a significant adaptation in agriculture, especially in areas like the Americas, where different cultures developed unique methods to enhance their agricultural productivity.
Resource distribution: Resource distribution refers to the way in which natural resources, materials, and goods are spread across different regions and societies. This concept is essential for understanding how various Neolithic cultures in the Americas adapted to their environments, utilized available resources, and developed their societies based on the availability of food, water, and materials for shelter and tools.
Settlement Patterns: Settlement patterns refer to the distribution and organization of human habitations and communities within a specific area. This concept encompasses how societies establish their living spaces, including the locations, density, and types of structures, as well as how these aspects are influenced by environmental factors, resources, and cultural practices. Understanding settlement patterns provides insights into the social, economic, and political structures of prehistoric cultures.
Social stratification: Social stratification refers to the hierarchical organization of individuals or groups in a society based on various factors such as wealth, power, education, and occupation. This concept highlights how resources and opportunities are distributed unevenly, affecting individuals' social mobility and quality of life. In prehistory, it sheds light on the emergence of different social roles and the division of labor as communities transitioned from hunter-gatherer lifestyles to more complex agricultural societies.
Squash cultivation: Squash cultivation refers to the agricultural practice of growing various species of squash, a group of vegetables that belong to the gourd family. This practice played a crucial role in the development of Neolithic cultures in the Americas, as it provided a reliable food source and was often grown alongside other staple crops like maize and beans, forming the basis of the agricultural system known as the 'Three Sisters.'
Teotihuacan: Teotihuacan was an ancient Mesoamerican city located in the Basin of Mexico, known for its monumental architecture and complex society that flourished from around 100 BCE to 750 CE. It is often recognized as one of the largest cities in the ancient world and played a crucial role in the development of cultural, economic, and religious practices in pre-Columbian America, influencing various civilizations that followed.
Terracing: Terracing is an agricultural practice that involves creating stepped levels on sloped land to prevent soil erosion and maximize arable land. This method helps in managing water runoff and improving crop yields by providing flat areas for farming, making it especially important in regions with varied topography. In ancient cultures, terracing was a significant innovation that allowed communities to adapt to challenging landscapes, facilitating the growth of agriculture.
Textile production: Textile production refers to the process of creating fabrics and textiles from raw materials, such as fibers, through techniques like weaving, knitting, and dyeing. This practice played a crucial role in the development of early human societies, impacting social structures, trade networks, and cultural expressions. As people transitioned to settled agricultural lifestyles, textile production became a vital component of Neolithic innovations and reflected the diverse cultures that emerged across different regions.
Tiwanaku: Tiwanaku was a significant prehistoric urban center located near Lake Titicaca in present-day Bolivia, known for its advanced agricultural techniques and monumental architecture. It played a crucial role in the development of complex societies in the Andes, particularly during the period from around 300 to 1000 CE, influencing surrounding cultures through trade, agriculture, and religious practices.
Trade networks: Trade networks are systems of interconnected trade routes and exchanges that facilitate the movement of goods, services, and cultural ideas among different societies. These networks played a crucial role in the development of economies, cultures, and technologies throughout history, particularly during periods of innovation and societal transformation.
Tribal societies: Tribal societies are social groups that are typically organized around kinship ties and shared cultural practices, often characterized by a lack of centralized authority. These societies often rely on subsistence strategies like hunting and gathering or small-scale agriculture, and their social structures are generally egalitarian, with communal decision-making processes. In the context of Neolithic cultures in the Americas, tribal societies were pivotal in the development of agricultural practices and the establishment of complex social networks.
Zapotec: The Zapotec are an indigenous Mesoamerican culture that developed in the Oaxaca Valley of southern Mexico, known for their advanced social organization, impressive architectural achievements, and contributions to writing and astronomy. They played a significant role in the Neolithic cultures of the Americas, particularly through their agricultural practices, urban development, and complex societal structures.