5.2 French Existentialist literature
9 min read•august 21, 2024
French emerged in post-World War II France, challenging traditional philosophy by emphasizing individual existence and responsibility in a seemingly meaningless universe. It reflected the cultural climate of the time, grappling with the horrors of war and rapid societal changes.
Key thinkers like Sartre, Camus, and de Beauvoir explored existential themes through novels, plays, and essays. They examined concepts such as absurdity, freedom, , and , influencing generations of writers and thinkers worldwide.
Origins of French existentialism
- Emerged as a philosophical and literary movement in mid-20th century France, reflecting the cultural and intellectual climate of post-World War II Europe
- Challenged traditional Western philosophy by emphasizing individual existence, freedom, and responsibility in an apparently meaningless universe
- Developed as a response to the horrors of war, rapid societal changes, and the perceived inadequacy of existing philosophical frameworks
Influence of world wars
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- World War I shattered illusions of progress and rationality, leading to disillusionment and questioning of established values
- World War II's devastation and the Holocaust intensified existential concerns about human nature and the meaning of life
- Occupation of France during WWII sparked resistance movements, influencing existentialist ideas about freedom and moral responsibility
- Post-war reconstruction period provided fertile ground for existentialist thought as people grappled with rebuilding their lives and society
Philosophical foundations
- Draws from 19th-century philosophers (Kierkegaard, Nietzsche) who emphasized subjective experience and individual existence
- Incorporates phenomenology, focusing on direct, immediate experience as the source of knowledge
- Rejects traditional metaphysics and embraces atheism or agnosticism, emphasizing human responsibility in the absence of divine guidance
- Emphasizes the concept of "," arguing that humans define themselves through their actions and choices
Key existentialist thinkers
- , considered the father of French existentialism, developed comprehensive philosophical system
- , though he rejected the label, explored existential themes in his novels and essays
- , pioneered existentialist feminism and applied existential concepts to gender relations
- Maurice Merleau-Ponty, contributed to existential phenomenology, focusing on embodied experience and perception
Themes in existentialist literature
- Explores the human condition in a world devoid of inherent meaning or purpose
- Emphasizes individual responsibility for creating meaning and values in one's life
- Examines the tension between personal freedom and societal constraints
Absurdity of existence
- Portrays life as inherently meaningless, lacking predetermined purpose or universal truths
- Explores the conflict between human desire for meaning and the indifferent universe
- Uses absurd situations or characters to highlight the irrationality of existence
- Encourages embracing the absurd as a means of authentic living (Camus' "revolt")
Freedom and responsibility
- Asserts that humans are "condemned to be free" and must make choices that define their existence
- Emphasizes the burden of responsibility that comes with absolute freedom
- Explores the anxiety and anguish (angoisse) resulting from the weight of personal choices
- Examines how individuals navigate moral dilemmas in the absence of absolute ethical standards
Alienation and isolation
- Depicts characters feeling disconnected from society, others, and even themselves
- Explores the existential loneliness that arises from recognizing one's unique consciousness
- Examines the struggle to find authentic connections in a world of superficial relationships
- Portrays the individual's search for meaning as a solitary journey
Authenticity vs bad faith
- Contrasts authentic living (embracing ) with (self-deception and denial of freedom)
- Explores how societal roles and expectations can lead to inauthentic existence
- Examines the tension between individual desires and social conformity
- Portrays characters struggling to overcome bad faith and live authentically
Major French existentialist authors
- Shaped the literary and philosophical landscape of post-war France
- Explored existential themes through various genres including novels, plays, and essays
- Influenced generations of writers and thinkers worldwide
Jean-Paul Sartre
- Philosopher, novelist, playwright, and political activist who popularized existentialism
- Developed concept of "existence precedes essence" in his philosophical works
- Wrote influential novels () and plays () exploring existential themes
- Awarded but declined the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1964
- Engaged in political activism, supporting leftist causes and anti-colonial movements
Simone de Beauvoir
- Philosopher, novelist, and feminist theorist who applied existentialist ideas to gender issues
- Wrote groundbreaking feminist text , analyzing women's oppression through existential lens
- Explored existential themes in novels (She Came to Stay) and memoirs (Memoirs of a Dutiful Daughter)
- Long-term partner of Sartre, their relationship embodied existentialist ideas of freedom and authenticity
- Contributed to existentialist ethics, developing concepts of ambiguity and situated freedom
Albert Camus
- Nobel Prize-winning author who explored existential themes while rejecting the existentialist label
- Developed philosophy of the absurd, emphasizing revolt, freedom, and passion as responses to life's meaninglessness
- Wrote influential novels (, ) and essays () examining absurdity and human condition
- Engaged with political issues, supporting justice and opposing totalitarianism
- Explored themes of alienation, guilt, and moral responsibility in his works
Existentialist novels
- Employ narrative techniques to explore existential themes and philosophical concepts
- Often feature alienated protagonists grappling with meaninglessness and personal responsibility
- Use symbolism and absurdist elements to convey existential ideas
Nausea by Sartre
- Published in 1938, considered one of the first existentialist novels
- Follows Antoine Roquentin, a historian experiencing profound alienation and disgust with existence
- Uses stream-of-consciousness narration to convey the protagonist's existential crisis
- Explores themes of contingency, freedom, and the absurdity of existence
- Employs vivid descriptions of physical sensations to illustrate existential nausea
The Stranger by Camus
- Published in 1942, exemplifies Camus' philosophy of the absurd
- Narrated by Meursault, an emotionally detached man who commits a senseless murder
- Explores themes of alienation, indifference, and the absurdity of social conventions
- Uses sparse, detached prose style to reflect the protagonist's emotional state
- Examines the conflict between individual authenticity and societal expectations
The Plague by Camus
- Published in 1947, allegorical novel set during a plague epidemic in Oran, Algeria
- Explores collective human responses to crisis and the absurdity of existence
- Examines themes of solidarity, resistance, and moral responsibility in the face of suffering
- Uses multiple characters to present different philosophical perspectives on the plague
- Reflects on the nature of evil and the possibility of finding meaning in a seemingly indifferent universe
Existentialist plays
- Use theatrical form to dramatize existential concepts and dilemmas
- Often employ symbolic settings and surreal elements to explore philosophical ideas
- Challenge traditional theatrical conventions to reflect existentialist worldview
No Exit by Sartre
- First performed in 1944, set in a mysterious room representing the afterlife
- Features three characters trapped together, realizing "hell is other people"
- Explores themes of self-deception, bad faith, and the gaze of others
- Uses confined setting to examine interpersonal relationships and self-definition
- Employs circular structure to reflect the characters' eternal predicament
The Flies by Sartre
- Premiered in 1943, retells the Greek myth of Orestes and Electra
- Set in a city plagued by flies, symbolizing guilt and remorse
- Explores themes of freedom, responsibility, and the rejection of divine authority
- Uses mythological framework to comment on contemporary issues (Nazi occupation)
- Portrays Orestes as an existential hero who chooses to act and bear responsibility
Caligula by Camus
- Written in 1938 but first performed in 1945, based on the historical Roman emperor
- Depicts Caligula's descent into madness after realizing the absurdity of existence
- Explores themes of absolute freedom, the limits of power, and the consequences of nihilism
- Uses historical setting to examine universal existential questions
- Portrays Caligula as both a tyrant and a tragic figure grappling with life's meaninglessness
Existentialist essays
- Present philosophical arguments and explore existential concepts in non-fiction form
- Often combine personal reflections with broader philosophical analysis
- Influential in shaping existentialist thought and popularizing key ideas
Being and Nothingness by Sartre
- Published in 1943, Sartre's magnum opus on existential philosophy
- Develops concepts of consciousness, freedom, and the nature of human existence
- Explores key ideas such as "existence precedes essence" and "bad faith"
- Analyzes human relationships through the lens of "the look" and objectification
- Influences fields beyond philosophy, including psychology and social theory
The Myth of Sisyphus by Camus
- Published in 1942, philosophical essay exploring the concept of the absurd
- Uses the Greek myth of Sisyphus to illustrate the human condition
- Argues for embracing the absurd through revolt, freedom, and passion
- Examines the question of suicide as a response to life's meaninglessness
- Introduces the concept of the "absurd hero" who finds meaning in struggle
The Second Sex by Beauvoir
- Published in 1949, groundbreaking feminist text applying existentialist ideas to gender
- Analyzes women's oppression through the lens of existential philosophy
- Explores how women are defined as "Other" in relation to men
- Examines biological, psychological, and social factors shaping women's experiences
- Argues for women's liberation as an existential project of self-realization
Literary techniques
- Employ innovative narrative strategies to convey existential themes and experiences
- Challenge traditional literary conventions to reflect existentialist worldview
- Use language and structure to immerse readers in characters' existential crises
First-person narration
- Emphasizes subjective experience and individual consciousness
- Allows direct access to characters' thoughts and existential struggles
- Creates sense of immediacy and intimacy with protagonists' inner worlds
- Often employs stream-of-consciousness technique to reflect chaotic nature of existence
Unreliable narrators
- Challenges readers' assumptions about truth and reality
- Reflects existentialist ideas about subjectivity and the impossibility of absolute knowledge
- Creates ambiguity and uncertainty, mirroring existential doubt
- Forces readers to actively engage with text and question narrator's perspective
Symbolic imagery
- Uses concrete objects or situations to represent abstract existential concepts
- Employs recurring motifs to reinforce themes of alienation, absurdity, or freedom
- Creates multi-layered meanings that deepen philosophical exploration
- Often draws from mythology or cultural archetypes to universalize existential ideas
Absurdist elements
- Incorporates illogical or nonsensical situations to highlight life's absurdity
- Uses dark humor or irony to underscore existential themes
- Subverts readers' expectations to create sense of disorientation
- Blends realistic and surreal elements to question nature of reality
Impact on world literature
- Influenced literary movements and individual authors globally
- Shaped post-war intellectual climate and artistic expression
- Continues to resonate in contemporary literature and popular culture
Influence on post-war writers
- Inspired Beat Generation authors (Kerouac, Ginsberg) in America
- Influenced European writers like Samuel Beckett and Eugene Ionesco
- Shaped development of postmodern literature and its questioning of grand narratives
- Impacted Latin American authors (Julio Cortázar, Jorge Luis Borges) exploring existential themes
Existentialism in other cultures
- Japanese authors (Kobo Abe, Kenzaburo Oe) adapted existentialist ideas to explore post-war Japanese society
- African writers (Chinua Achebe, Wole Soyinka) incorporated existential themes in postcolonial contexts
- Middle Eastern authors (Naguib Mahfouz, Ghassan Kanafani) explored existential questions in their cultural settings
- Eastern European writers (Milan Kundera, Václav Havel) engaged with existentialist ideas under communist regimes
Legacy in contemporary literature
- Continues to influence authors exploring themes of alienation and meaninglessness in modern society
- Shapes literary approaches to issues of identity, freedom, and responsibility in globalized world
- Informs dystopian and speculative fiction examining human existence in extreme situations
- Contributes to development of autofiction and other forms blending personal experience with philosophical reflection
Criticism of existentialism
- Faced various objections from philosophical, literary, and social perspectives
- Sparked debates about its coherence, ethical implications, and cultural biases
- Continues to be critically examined and reinterpreted in light of contemporary issues
Philosophical objections
- Criticized for potential relativism and lack of objective moral standards
- Challenged by analytical philosophers for perceived lack of rigorous argumentation
- Questioned by religious thinkers for its atheistic or agnostic stance
- Critiqued for overemphasizing individual freedom at expense of social determinants
Literary critiques
- Accused of privileging philosophy over artistic merit in literature
- Criticized for potentially creating one-dimensional characters serving philosophical arguments
- Questioned for its potential to lead to nihilistic or overly pessimistic worldviews
- Challenged for its focus on alienation and angst at expense of other human experiences
Feminist perspectives
- Critiqued by some feminists for male-centric focus in early existentialist works
- Questioned assumptions about universal human experience that may not account for gendered realities
- Explored tensions between existentialist emphasis on individual freedom and feminist analyses of systemic oppression
- Developed existentialist feminism (Beauvoir) to address gender issues within existentialist framework
Key Terms to Review (23)
Albert Camus: Albert Camus was a French philosopher, author, and journalist known for his contributions to existentialism and absurdism. His works often explore themes of meaninglessness, freedom, and the human condition, particularly in the face of an indifferent universe. Camus' writings influenced both literature and philosophy, with a significant impact on various genres, including novels, essays, and plays.
Alienation: Alienation refers to a feeling of disconnection or estrangement from oneself, others, or society as a whole. This concept often highlights the struggles individuals face in modern life, reflecting their isolation amidst societal changes and personal crises. In literature, it serves as a key theme, illustrating the impact of modernity, existentialism, and absurdity on the human experience.
Authenticity: Authenticity refers to the quality of being genuine, real, and true to oneself, often emphasizing individual freedom and personal responsibility. In literature, it connects deeply with characters' struggles to find their own identity and purpose, particularly in existentialist thought where the quest for meaning is central. The notion of authenticity serves as a lens through which existentialist themes are explored, highlighting the tension between societal expectations and personal truth.
Bad faith: Bad faith refers to the act of deceiving oneself or others about one’s true motivations, often by denying personal responsibility or authenticity. It is a central concept in existential philosophy, particularly in the context of freedom and choice, where individuals avoid confronting their true selves and responsibilities to escape the anxiety that comes with absolute freedom.
Being and nothingness: Being and Nothingness is a fundamental concept in existentialist philosophy, particularly as articulated by Jean-Paul Sartre, which explores the nature of existence, consciousness, and the human experience of freedom. This concept emphasizes the contrast between 'being'—the state of existence filled with essence, identity, and substance—and 'nothingness,' which represents the absence of meaning, value, or purpose, underscoring the idea that humans must navigate a world that lacks inherent significance.
Existence precedes essence: The phrase 'existence precedes essence' is a fundamental principle in existentialist philosophy, primarily associated with Jean-Paul Sartre. It suggests that individuals are born without any predetermined purpose or nature, and it is through their actions and choices that they create their own identity and meaning. This concept challenges traditional views that essence, or an individual's purpose, comes before existence.
Existential criticism: Existential criticism is a literary approach that examines the themes of existence, freedom, and choice, often focusing on the individual's struggle to find meaning in an indifferent or absurd world. It highlights how characters navigate their own existence while confronting issues such as alienation, despair, and the quest for authenticity, reflecting the broader philosophical ideas associated with existentialism.
Existentialism: Existentialism is a philosophical movement that emphasizes individual existence, freedom, and choice, asserting that individuals are responsible for creating meaning in their own lives despite the inherent absurdity of the world. This perspective has significantly influenced literature, where characters often grapple with the complexities of existence, the search for identity, and the confrontation with mortality.
Existentialist novel: An existentialist novel is a type of literature that explores themes of existence, freedom, and the absurdity of life through the lens of individual characters' experiences. These novels often challenge traditional narratives and moral values, focusing on the struggles of characters as they confront an indifferent universe and seek meaning in their lives. This form of literature is closely tied to existentialist philosophy, which emphasizes personal responsibility and the search for authenticity.
Freedom and responsibility: Freedom and responsibility refer to the philosophical concept that individuals possess the ability to make choices and take actions, while also bearing the consequences of those actions. This connection is crucial in existentialist thought, where the emphasis on individual autonomy leads to the recognition that with freedom comes an inherent responsibility for one’s choices and their impact on oneself and others.
Jean-Paul Sartre: Jean-Paul Sartre was a French philosopher, playwright, novelist, and critic, widely recognized as one of the leading figures of 20th-century existentialism. His works delve into the complexities of human existence, freedom, and the burden of choice, significantly influencing both literature and philosophy.
Nausea: Nausea is a philosophical concept often associated with the feelings of disorientation, discomfort, and existential dread that arise from a confrontation with the absurdity and meaninglessness of life. This sensation reflects a deeper awareness of one's existence and the inherent contradictions of human life, leading to a profound questioning of purpose and identity.
No Exit: 'No Exit' is a one-act play by Jean-Paul Sartre that illustrates the central tenets of existentialist philosophy, particularly the idea that 'hell is other people.' The term encapsulates the notion that individuals are trapped in their own self-perceptions and the judgments of others, leading to an inescapable psychological confinement. This theme resonates throughout existentialist literature, where characters often confront their own choices and the consequences they bear in a world devoid of inherent meaning.
Non-linear narrative: A non-linear narrative is a storytelling technique where events are presented out of chronological order or in a way that does not follow a straight, linear progression. This approach can enhance the complexity of the story, allowing for multiple perspectives and deeper exploration of themes and characters, often found in various literary movements and genres.
Post-existentialism: Post-existentialism is a philosophical movement that emerges in response to the limitations and critiques of existentialism, emphasizing the importance of intersubjectivity, social context, and the shared human experience. This approach often seeks to move beyond the isolation and individualism associated with classic existentialist thought, fostering a more collective understanding of existence.
Simone de beauvoir: Simone de Beauvoir was a French existentialist philosopher, writer, and feminist known for her influential works that explored the nature of existence, freedom, and the condition of women. Her most famous work, 'The Second Sex,' challenged traditional views of women's roles in society and laid the groundwork for modern feminist thought, connecting existentialism with the struggle for gender equality.
Stream of consciousness: Stream of consciousness is a narrative technique that attempts to capture the flow of thoughts, feelings, and perceptions as they occur in the mind. This style often blurs the line between internal dialogue and external reality, allowing readers to experience a character's thought process in a more intimate and fluid manner.
The ethics of ambiguity: The ethics of ambiguity refers to a philosophical perspective that acknowledges the complexity and uncertainty inherent in human existence, emphasizing the importance of freedom, choice, and personal responsibility. It suggests that individuals must navigate the ambiguous nature of life by making authentic choices while recognizing the interconnectedness of all beings and the moral implications of their actions.
The myth of sisyphus: The myth of Sisyphus is a philosophical concept articulated by Albert Camus, symbolizing the struggle against the absurdity of life. Sisyphus, condemned to eternally roll a boulder up a hill only to watch it roll back down, represents the human condition and the pursuit of meaning in a seemingly meaningless universe. This myth connects deeply with themes in existentialism and absurdism, highlighting the resilience of individuals who continue to seek purpose despite life’s inherent challenges.
The plague: The plague refers to a devastating infectious disease caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis, historically responsible for multiple pandemics, including the infamous Black Death in the 14th century. Its impact on society, particularly in Europe, profoundly influenced existentialist thought and literature, as people grappled with themes of suffering, death, and the absurdity of existence.
The second sex: The term 'the second sex' refers to the concept of women being perceived as the 'other' in relation to men, which was notably popularized by Simone de Beauvoir in her groundbreaking work. This idea highlights the societal and cultural constructions that position women in a subordinate role, influencing various areas such as philosophy, literature, and feminist thought. The term emphasizes the need to understand gender as a social construct, paving the way for deeper discussions about identity, equality, and liberation.
The stranger: In literature, 'the stranger' refers to the theme of alienation and the existential condition of feeling disconnected from society and oneself. This concept is closely associated with the exploration of identity, absurdity, and the human experience, often manifesting in characters who grapple with the meaning of existence and their place in the world.
Theater of the absurd: The theater of the absurd is a dramatic movement that emerged in the mid-20th century, characterized by its exploration of existential themes and the inherent meaninglessness of human existence. It often employs illogical scenarios, fragmented narratives, and nonsensical dialogue to reflect the disarray and confusion of contemporary life. This style closely connects with existentialism, highlighting the absurdity of the human condition and often questioning traditional values and structures.