🧕🏼Women and Religion Unit 11 – Gender & Sexuality in Religious Contexts

Key Concepts and Terminology

• Gender refers to the socially constructed roles, behaviors, expressions and identities of men, women, and gender diverse people
• Sex is the biological classification of people as male or female based on physiological and anatomical features
• Sexuality encompasses sexual orientation, attraction, behavior, and identity
• Patriarchy is a social system where men hold primary power and predominate in roles of political leadership, moral authority, social privilege and control of property
• Heteronormativity is the belief that heterosexuality is the default, preferred, or normal mode of sexual orientation
• Cisgender describes a person whose gender identity aligns with their sex assigned at birth
• Transgender is an umbrella term for people whose gender identity differs from the sex they were assigned at birth
  • Non-binary is a term for gender identities that are not exclusively masculine or feminine and exist outside the gender binary
• Intersectionality is the interconnected nature of social categorizations such as race, class, and gender as they apply to a given individual or group, creating overlapping and interdependent systems of discrimination or disadvantage

Historical Perspectives on Gender and Sexuality

• Many ancient societies had fluid understandings of gender and sexuality (Mesopotamia, Greece, Rome)
• Some cultures recognized third gender or non-binary identities (hijras in India, two-spirit in Indigenous North American cultures)
• Abrahamic religions (Judaism, Christianity, Islam) historically promoted patriarchal gender roles and heteronormativity
• The rise of Christianity in the West led to more rigid gender norms and the suppression of diverse sexual practices
• The Victorian era (19th century) saw the medicalization of sexuality and the pathologizing of non-heterosexual orientations
  • This period also solidified the notion of separate spheres for men (public) and women (domestic)
• The sexual revolution of the 1960s-70s challenged traditional norms around gender and sexuality
• Feminist and LGBTQ+ movements have fought for greater gender equality and sexual diversity

Religious Texts and Gender Roles

• Many religious texts contain passages that prescribe gender roles and reinforce patriarchal structures
• In the Bible, the creation story of Adam and Eve has been used to justify male dominance and female subordination
  • Eve is created from Adam's rib and is blamed for the fall of humanity in the Garden of Eden
• The Quran emphasizes complementarity between men and women but also includes verses that seem to privilege men (inheritance, polygamy, male authority in the household)
• Hindu scriptures present a mix of egalitarian and hierarchical gender ideals
  • The Manusmriti codifies patriarchal norms and the subordination of women
  • The Shakta traditions elevate the divine feminine and challenge gender hierarchies
• Buddhist texts generally de-emphasize gender distinctions and affirm the spiritual potential of all beings
  • However, the monastic sangha has historically been male-dominated and excluded full ordination for women in some traditions
• Contemporary feminist theologians offer alternative readings of religious texts that center women's experiences and challenge patriarchal interpretations

Sexuality in Religious Traditions

• Many religious traditions have regulated sexual behavior and defined normative sexual practices
• Abrahamic faiths have generally restricted sexual activity to heterosexual marriage and prohibited non-procreative sex acts
  • However, there is diversity within these traditions (e.g., Jewish views on sex for pleasure, Islamic emphasis on sexual fulfillment)
• Hinduism recognizes kama (sexual pleasure) as a legitimate aim of life alongside dharma (duty), artha (prosperity), and moksha (liberation)
  • The Kama Sutra is a famous Hindu text on sexuality and eroticism
• Buddhism sees sexual desire as a cause of suffering but does not categorically condemn all sexual activity
  • Monastic celibacy is valued, but lay Buddhists can engage in sexual relationships guided by ethical principles
• Some New Religious Movements have embraced sacred sexuality and free love (Wicca, neo-tantra, Osho movement)
• LGBTQ+ people have often faced discrimination and exclusion in religious communities
  • However, many traditions now affirm same-sex relationships and transgender identities

Gender and Power Structures in Religious Institutions

• Most religious institutions have been historically male-dominated, with women excluded from leadership roles
• In Christianity, the Catholic and Orthodox churches do not ordain women as priests
  • Protestant denominations vary in their policies on female ordination
• Islam does not have a formal clergy, but religious authority has traditionally been the domain of men (imams, scholars)
  • Women may lead other women in prayer but are often segregated in mosques
• Judaism has historically limited religious leadership to men, but the Reform and Conservative movements now ordain female rabbis
• Hinduism has a tradition of female gurus and saints, but the priestly class (Brahmins) is typically male
• Buddhism has had a complex relationship with female ordination
  • The Buddha initially resisted ordaining women but eventually established a nuns' order
  • However, the nuns' lineage died out in some traditions and was never fully equal to the male sangha
• Feminist movements have challenged gender hierarchies in religious institutions and advocated for women's ordination and leadership

Contemporary Debates and Movements

• Feminist theology emerged in the 1960s-70s to challenge patriarchal religious structures and re-interpret traditions from a woman-centered perspective
  • Key figures include Mary Daly, Rosemary Radford Ruether, and Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza
• Islamic feminism seeks to promote gender equality within the framework of Islam
  • Scholars like Amina Wadud and Asma Barlas offer egalitarian readings of the Quran
• LGBTQ+ religious movements have fought for inclusion and affirmation of diverse sexual orientations and gender identities
  • Examples include the Metropolitan Community Church, Dignity USA (Catholic), and the World Congress of GLBT Jews
• Intersectional approaches highlight the experiences of women of color, working-class women, and LGBTQ+ people within religious traditions
  • Womanist theology centers the perspectives of Black women in Christianity
  • Mujerista theology focuses on Latina women's experiences in the Catholic church
• Debates continue around issues such as women's ordination, same-sex marriage, transgender inclusion, and reproductive rights in various religious contexts

Case Studies and Examples

• The Women's Mosque of America, founded in 2015, is the first women-only mosque in the United States
  • It aims to empower Muslim women and challenge gender segregation in Islamic spaces
• The Danube Seven are a group of women who were illegally ordained as Catholic priests in 2002
  • They sparked a movement for women's ordination in the Catholic church, despite official opposition from the Vatican
• The Sisters of Perpetual Indulgence are a group of queer and trans nuns who use drag and religious imagery to challenge sexual and gender norms
  • They engage in social activism, fundraising, and community outreach
• Rev. Dr. Pauli Murray was an African American civil rights activist, lawyer, and Episcopal priest
  • She challenged racism and sexism in the church and society and was the first African American woman ordained as an Episcopal priest
• Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha) had a wife and child before leaving home to seek enlightenment
  • His story highlights the tension between worldly attachments and spiritual pursuits in Buddhism
• The Hijra community in South Asia are a third gender identity with roots in Hinduism
  • They often live in communal households, perform blessings at weddings and births, and face social marginalization

Impact on Modern Society and Culture

• Feminist and LGBTQ+ religious movements have contributed to broader social and political changes around gender and sexuality
• Many countries have legalized same-sex marriage, often with the support of progressive religious groups
  • However, conservative religious organizations continue to oppose LGBTQ+ rights
• Women's ordination and leadership in religious institutions remains a contentious issue
  • While progress has been made, many traditions still limit women's roles
• Interfaith dialogues and coalitions have addressed issues of gender justice and LGBTQ+ inclusion
  • Examples include the Women's Alliance for Theology, Ethics, and Ritual (WATER) and the Global Interfaith Network for People of All Sexes, Sexual Orientations, Gender Identities and Expressions (GIN-SSOGIE)
• Popular culture has increasingly represented diverse gender and sexual identities, often in conversation with religious themes
  • TV shows like Transparent and Pose depict the experiences of transgender and gender non-conforming people, including their spiritual journeys
  • Films like Bend It Like Beckham and The Secrets explore the intersection of religion, gender, and sexuality in different cultural contexts
• Debates around gender and sexuality continue to shape public discourse and policy, with religion playing a significant role
  • Issues like transgender bathroom access, conversion therapy, and sex education often involve religious perspectives and advocacy