3.4 Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution
7 min read•august 20, 2024
The granted women the right to vote in the U.S., marking a major milestone in . It was the result of a long campaign by suffragists who challenged societal norms and expectations about women's roles.
The amendment's passage in 1920 led to millions of women voting and running for office. However, many women of color still faced barriers to voting due to discriminatory practices, highlighting ongoing challenges in achieving full political equality.
Origins of the 19th Amendment
- The 19th Amendment granted women the right to vote in the United States, marking a significant milestone in the struggle for gender equality and political rights
- The amendment was the culmination of a long and hard-fought campaign by suffragists and women's rights advocates who challenged prevailing gender norms and societal expectations
Early women's suffrage movement
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- The early began in the mid-19th century, with activists like and Lucretia Mott organizing the in 1848
- The convention produced the , which asserted that women deserved equal rights, including the right to vote
- Suffragists employed various tactics to advance their cause, such as lobbying legislators, holding rallies and marches, and distributing pamphlets and petitions
- The movement faced significant resistance from those who believed that women's role should be confined to the domestic sphere and that their participation in politics would disrupt social order
Key figures in the movement
- emerged as a prominent leader in the suffrage movement, co-founding the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) with Elizabeth Cady Stanton
- and formed the (NWP) in 1916, adopting more militant tactics like picketing the White House and staging hunger strikes
- , who served as president of the (NAWSA), played a crucial role in the final push for the 19th Amendment
- Other notable figures included , who advocated for the rights of African American women, and , who worked to address the intersection of race and gender in the suffrage movement
Opposition to women's suffrage
- Opponents of women's suffrage, known as "anti-suffragists," argued that women were emotionally and intellectually unfit for political participation
- Some believed that women's involvement in politics would lead to the neglect of their domestic duties and the breakdown of the family unit
- Business interests, such as the liquor industry, feared that women voters would support prohibition and other reforms that could harm their profits
- Many Southern states resisted women's suffrage due to concerns that it would challenge the racial hierarchy and white supremacy
Passage of the 19th Amendment
- The road to the 19th Amendment was long and arduous, marked by incremental victories and setbacks at the state and federal levels
- Suffragists pursued a dual strategy of securing suffrage at the state level while simultaneously pushing for a federal
State-level suffrage victories
- Wyoming Territory granted women the right to vote in 1869, becoming the first U.S. jurisdiction to do so
- By 1919, several states, particularly in the West, had extended full or partial suffrage to women (Colorado, Utah, Idaho)
- State-level victories demonstrated the growing support for women's suffrage and put pressure on the federal government to act
World War I and women's contributions
- World War I provided an opportunity for suffragists to highlight women's contributions to the war effort and argue for their right to political participation
- Women served as nurses, factory workers, and in other essential roles, challenging traditional gender roles and expectations
- The NWP used the war as a platform to accuse the government of hypocrisy, pointing out the contradiction of fighting for democracy abroad while denying it to women at home
Congressional approval in 1919
- In May 1919, the U.S. House of Representatives passed the 19th Amendment, followed by the Senate in June
- The amendment's passage was the result of sustained pressure from suffragists, shifting public opinion, and the growing political influence of women
- Congressional approval sent the amendment to the states for , requiring three-fourths of the states (36 out of 48 at the time) to ratify it for it to become part of the Constitution
State ratification process
- The ratification process was contentious, with many states quickly ratifying the amendment while others, particularly in the South, resisted
- Suffragists and anti-suffragists lobbied state legislatures, rallying support or opposition to ratification
- On August 18, 1920, Tennessee became the 36th state to ratify the amendment, securing its adoption into the Constitution
- The 19th Amendment was formally certified on August 26, 1920, ending the long struggle for women's suffrage at the federal level
Impact on women's political participation
- The 19th Amendment's ratification marked a turning point in women's political engagement and representation in the United States
- Women's newfound voting rights paved the way for their increased participation in the electoral process and public life
Dramatic increase in women voters
- Following the amendment's adoption, millions of women across the country registered to vote and cast their ballots in elections
- In the 1920 presidential election, just months after the amendment's ratification, an estimated 8 million women voted
- The surge in women voters challenged political parties to address issues of concern to women and to court their support
Emergence of women candidates
- With the right to vote secured, more women began to run for political office at the local, state, and federal levels
- In 1922, Rebecca Latimer Felton of Georgia became the first woman to serve in the U.S. Senate, albeit for just one day
- The number of women holding elected office gradually increased over the following decades, although progress was slow and women remained underrepresented in political institutions
Shifts in party platforms and policies
- The entrance of women into the electorate compelled political parties to adjust their platforms and priorities to appeal to women voters
- Parties began to address issues such as child labor, maternal health, and women's working conditions, recognizing the growing importance of women's votes
- Women's organizations, such as the , emerged to educate women about political issues and to advocate for policies that advanced women's interests
Limitations and ongoing challenges
- Despite the 19th Amendment's passage, many women, particularly women of color, continued to face barriers to voting and political participation
- The amendment's promise of universal suffrage remained unfulfilled for decades due to discriminatory practices and ongoing resistance to women's political empowerment
Barriers for women of color
- The 19th Amendment did not explicitly address racial discrimination, leaving many African American, Latina, and Native American women excluded from the franchise
- In the South, Jim Crow laws, poll taxes, and literacy tests effectively disenfranchised most Black women, denying them the right to vote until the passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965
- Women of color also faced discrimination within the suffrage movement itself, with some white suffragists prioritizing the enfranchisement of white women over universal suffrage
Voter suppression tactics
- Even after the 19th Amendment's ratification, women voters encountered various forms of suppression and intimidation
- Some states implemented restrictions on women's voting, such as requiring women to register separately from men or imposing property ownership requirements
- Women voters also faced harassment, threats, and violence aimed at discouraging their political participation
Persistent gender gaps in representation
- Despite the increasing number of women running for office, gender disparities in persisted throughout the 20th century and into the present day
- Women have remained underrepresented at all levels of government, from local offices to Congress and the presidency
- Structural barriers, such as gender stereotypes, unequal access to campaign resources, and the challenges of balancing family responsibilities with political careers, have hindered women's full political equality
Legacy and significance
- The 19th Amendment stands as a landmark achievement in the struggle for women's rights and gender equality in the United States
- Its passage marked a significant step forward in the ongoing fight for women's full political, social, and economic empowerment
Milestone for gender equality
- The amendment's ratification represented a formal recognition of women's right to participate in the democratic process and to have a say in the laws and policies that governed their lives
- It challenged long-standing gender norms and expectations, asserting that women were capable of and entitled to political engagement
- The 19th Amendment paved the way for further advances in women's rights, such as the fight for equal pay, reproductive rights, and protection against discrimination
Inspiration for further activism
- The suffrage movement and the 19th Amendment's success inspired subsequent generations of women's rights activists and feminist movements
- The strategies and tactics employed by suffragists, such as civil disobedience, grassroots organizing, and media campaigns, influenced later social justice movements
- The amendment's legacy has served as a reminder of the power of collective action and the importance of persisting in the face of adversity
Continuing fight for full enfranchisement
- While the 19th Amendment marked a crucial victory, the struggle for women's full political equality and representation continues to this day
- Women, particularly women of color and marginalized communities, still face obstacles to political participation and leadership
- Efforts to address ongoing disparities, such as closing the gender pay gap, combating , and increasing women's representation in elected office, are part of the ongoing fight for gender justice and the realization of the 19th Amendment's full promise
Key Terms to Review (23)
19th Amendment: The 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1920, granted women the right to vote, marking a pivotal moment in the women's suffrage movement in the United States. This amendment was the culmination of decades of activism and struggle by women and their allies, connecting to broader international movements for women's voting rights and influencing political dynamics across various levels of governance.
Alice Paul: Alice Paul was a prominent American suffragist and women's rights activist known for her pivotal role in the women's suffrage movement and her advocacy for the Equal Rights Amendment. Her work was instrumental in the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment, which granted women the right to vote, and she continued to fight for gender equality in the decades that followed. Paul's strategic approaches included organizing parades, protests, and hunger strikes, making her a leading figure in advancing women's political rights and participation.
Carrie Chapman Catt: Carrie Chapman Catt was a prominent American women's suffrage leader who played a crucial role in the movement to secure women's right to vote in the United States. As a co-founder of the League of Women Voters, she advocated for political equality and worked tirelessly to promote the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which granted women the right to vote. Her strategic leadership and commitment were instrumental in mobilizing support for women's suffrage, emphasizing the importance of women's participation in democracy.
Constitutional Amendment: A constitutional amendment is a formal change or addition to the Constitution that alters its text or provisions. This process is crucial for adapting the Constitution to reflect changing societal values, legal interpretations, and political needs. Amendments can expand or restrict rights and are typically proposed by Congress or a national convention and must be ratified by the states to take effect.
Declaration of Sentiments: The Declaration of Sentiments is a pivotal document from the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848 that outlined the grievances and demands of women regarding their rights and social equality. This declaration was modeled after the Declaration of Independence and highlighted the injustices faced by women, calling for equal rights, including suffrage. Its creation sparked further advocacy for women's rights, connecting to various movements and legislative changes that followed.
Elizabeth Cady Stanton: Elizabeth Cady Stanton was a prominent American suffragist, social activist, and leading figure in the early women's rights movement, who played a crucial role in advocating for women's suffrage and equality. She is best known for her work at the Seneca Falls Convention, where she helped to draft the Declaration of Sentiments, which called for various social and political rights for women, and her ongoing efforts with organizations like the National Woman Suffrage Association to secure the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment, which granted women the right to vote.
Gender Equality: Gender equality means that individuals of all genders have equal rights, responsibilities, and opportunities. It encompasses the idea that everyone should have the same access to resources and decision-making processes, regardless of their gender identity. Achieving gender equality is crucial for promoting social justice and empowering women, which has been a central theme in various movements and policies aimed at rectifying historical imbalances.
Ida B. Wells-Barnett: Ida B. Wells-Barnett was a prominent African American journalist, educator, and civil rights activist known for her groundbreaking work in anti-lynching campaigns and advocacy for women's rights. Her efforts were pivotal in raising awareness about racial violence and the injustices faced by African Americans, connecting her activism to the broader women's suffrage movement and the fight for the Nineteenth Amendment.
League of Women Voters: The League of Women Voters is a nonpartisan organization founded in 1920 that encourages informed and active participation in government and influences public policy through education and advocacy. It emerged shortly after the Nineteenth Amendment was ratified, which granted women the right to vote, highlighting the need for women to be engaged in the political process and to understand their rights and responsibilities as voters.
Liberal Feminism: Liberal feminism is a branch of feminism that emphasizes individual rights, equality, and social justice, advocating for women's full participation in society through legal reforms and policy changes. It focuses on creating equal opportunities for women in education, the workplace, and political spheres, working within existing political structures to achieve gender equality. This approach connects deeply with significant historical movements and events that sought to advance women's rights and highlight systemic inequalities.
Lucy Burns: Lucy Burns was a prominent American suffragist and women's rights activist who played a crucial role in the women's suffrage movement during the early 20th century. As a co-founder of the National Women's Party, she was instrumental in advocating for women's right to vote and worked tirelessly alongside other leaders like Alice Paul to organize protests and campaigns that would ultimately lead to the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment.
Mary Church Terrell: Mary Church Terrell was an influential African American activist, educator, and suffragist who played a vital role in the early civil rights movement and women's rights activism. As one of the first African American women to earn a college degree, she used her education and platform to advocate for racial and gender equality, connecting her work to the broader movements for women's suffrage and civil rights.
National American Woman Suffrage Association: The National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) was a pivotal organization formed in 1890 that aimed to secure women's right to vote in the United States. It emerged from the merger of two earlier groups and played a crucial role in advocating for women's suffrage, organizing campaigns, and promoting the Nineteenth Amendment, which ultimately granted women the right to vote nationally. NAWSA's efforts were not only significant in the context of U.S. women's suffrage but also resonated with international movements for women's voting rights.
National Woman's Party: The National Woman's Party (NWP) was an American women's political organization founded in 1916 that played a pivotal role in the fight for women's suffrage. Led by Alice Paul, the NWP focused on securing the right to vote for women through more militant strategies compared to other suffrage groups. This organization significantly influenced the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which granted women the legal right to vote in 1920.
Political Representation: Political representation is the process by which individuals or groups have their interests and views reflected in political decision-making. This concept is crucial for a functioning democracy as it ensures that diverse voices, including marginalized groups, are included in governance. Political representation is often achieved through elected officials who act on behalf of their constituents, influencing policies that affect various demographics, including women and LGBTQ+ individuals.
Poll Tax: A poll tax is a fixed fee required to be paid in order to vote, often seen as a barrier to voting for low-income individuals and marginalized groups. Poll taxes were historically used in the United States, particularly in the South, as a means to disenfranchise African American voters and poor white voters following the Reconstruction era. The imposition of poll taxes was one of many tactics used to undermine the political power of certain groups, which has a direct link to the fight for women's suffrage and the broader struggles for equal voting rights.
Radical Feminism: Radical feminism is a perspective within feminist theory that emphasizes the fundamental differences between men and women, arguing that society is fundamentally patriarchal and that systemic change is necessary to achieve gender equality. This viewpoint critiques traditional social structures and advocates for the dismantling of patriarchy as a means to liberate women from oppression. Radical feminists often highlight issues such as sexual violence, reproductive rights, and the role of women in both public and private spheres, connecting their activism to historical movements for women's rights.
Ratification: Ratification is the formal approval process through which a proposed amendment or treaty is officially accepted and adopted, typically requiring a specific majority to pass. This process is crucial in shaping constitutional amendments and treaties, as it ensures that changes have the support of the governing body and, in some cases, the public. In the context of the Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, ratification represents a pivotal moment in American history where women's suffrage was finally recognized on a national level.
Seneca Falls Convention: The Seneca Falls Convention was the first women's rights convention in the United States, held in July 1848 in Seneca Falls, New York. It marked a significant turning point in the movement for women's rights and suffrage, gathering advocates who would later influence various campaigns for equality, including the Nineteenth Amendment and international suffrage movements.
Suffragist Movement: The suffragist movement was a social and political campaign aimed at securing the right to vote for women, primarily in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This movement sought to challenge societal norms and legal barriers that excluded women from the electoral process, ultimately culminating in significant legislative achievements like the Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. The efforts of suffragists were marked by activism, public demonstrations, and advocacy, which played a vital role in reshaping the political landscape of their time.
Susan B. Anthony: Susan B. Anthony was a prominent American social reformer and women's rights activist known for her role in the women's suffrage movement in the United States. Her tireless efforts not only helped pave the way for the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment but also connected her work to international movements advocating for women's voting rights, as well as broader first-wave feminist goals of equality and legal protections for women.
Voter suppression: Voter suppression refers to various tactics and strategies aimed at discouraging or preventing specific groups of people from exercising their right to vote. This often includes legal barriers, misinformation, and administrative obstacles that disproportionately affect marginalized communities. Understanding voter suppression is crucial in the context of the Nineteenth Amendment, as women, especially women of color, faced numerous challenges that restricted their voting rights even after the amendment's ratification.
Women's suffrage movement: The women's suffrage movement was a social and political campaign aimed at securing the right to vote for women, advocating for gender equality in voting rights. This movement marked a significant shift in the societal perception of women's roles, which was highlighted by key events and milestones, including early conventions and constitutional amendments that ultimately led to women's voting rights being recognized at the national level. Over the decades, this struggle intersected with various social issues and reflected the changing socioeconomic landscape of the time.