6.2 Cinder Cones and Spatter Cones
5 min read•july 30, 2024
Cinder cones and spatter cones are small volcanic landforms that form through different eruption styles. Cinder cones result from explosive eruptions of mafic to intermediate magma, while spatter cones form from low-viscosity basaltic lava fountains.
These cones differ in size, shape, and composition, reflecting variations in magma properties and eruptive processes. Understanding their formation and characteristics helps us interpret volcanic landscapes and eruption histories in different tectonic settings.
Formation of cinder cones and spatter cones
Cinder cone formation
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- Cinder cones form from explosive eruptions of mafic to intermediate magma (basaltic to andesitic)
- Fragmented lava, , and ash accumulate around the vent
- Builds up a conical structure with steep slopes (30-40°) through Strombolian activity
- Involves a higher degree of magma fragmentation compared to spatter cones
- Larger dispersal area of ejected material compared to spatter cones
Spatter cone formation
- Spatter cones form from the accumulation of ejected clots of molten lava, called spatter
- Occurs during Hawaiian-style fountaining eruptions of low-viscosity basaltic magma
- Spatter clots are larger and more fluid compared to the fragmented material in formation
- Ejected clots weld together upon landing, resulting in a smaller, steeper cone
- Limited dispersal range of ejected material compared to cinder cones
Eruptive episodes
- Both cinder cones and spatter cones typically form during a single eruptive episode
- Some cones may experience multiple phases of activity, leading to more complex structures
- Duration of eruptive episodes can vary from hours to days (spatter cones) or weeks to years (cinder cones)
- Eruptive episodes are characterized by distinct styles of activity (Strombolian for cinder cones, Hawaiian for spatter cones)
Morphology of cinder cones vs spatter cones
Shape and size
- Cinder cones have a symmetrical, conical shape with steep slopes (30-40°)
- Central crater at the summit
- Generally larger in size (up to 400 m high and 1500 m in diameter)
- Spatter cones have a more irregular, steep-sided (>45°) morphology
- Smaller, shallower crater
- Typically smaller in size (a few meters to tens of meters in height and diameter)
Surface characteristics
- Cinder cones have a surface composed of loose, granular tephra and ash
- Reflects the fragmented nature of the ejected material
- Grain size ranges from fine ash to larger fragments
- Spatter cones have a more coherent, welded surface made of agglutinated lava clots
- Results from the fluid nature of the ejected spatter
- Surface appears smoother and more consolidated compared to cinder cones
Internal structure
- Cinder cones display layering and bedding structures
- Reflects the accumulation of tephra during explosive eruptions
- Alternating layers of coarse and fine material, indicating variations in eruptive intensity
- Spatter cones have a more massive, homogeneous internal structure
- Lacks distinct layering due to the welding of ejected spatter
- May show flow structures or draping features related to the fluid nature of the lava clots
Magma composition and eruptive style
Magma composition
- Cinder cones are typically associated with mafic to intermediate magmas (basaltic to andesitic)
- Higher magma viscosity and gas content compared to -forming magmas
- Promotes greater fragmentation and explosive behavior
- Spatter cones are predominantly formed by low-viscosity basaltic magmas
- Lower magma viscosity and gas content compared to cinder cone-forming magmas
- Facilitates the ejection of fluid lava clots that rapidly coalesce and weld together
Eruptive style and fragmentation
- The degree of magma fragmentation and the nature of the ejected material play a crucial role in determining the morphology and internal structure of the resulting volcanic edifice
- Cinder cone-forming eruptions involve higher degrees of fragmentation
- Explosive ejection of tephra and ash
- Strombolian eruptive style, characterized by discrete explosions and ballistic ejection of material
- Spatter cone-forming eruptions involve lower degrees of fragmentation
- Ejection of fluid lava clots that rapidly coalesce and weld together
- Hawaiian eruptive style, characterized by continuous fountaining and the production of spatter
Transitions and variations
- Variations in magma composition, viscosity, and gas content during an eruptive episode can lead to transitions between cinder cone and spatter cone formation
- Changes in eruptive style and fragmentation processes within a single eruptive episode
- Alternating layers of tephra and welded spatter in some cones, reflecting these transitions
- Hybrid cones, displaying characteristics of both cinder cones and spatter cones, can form under certain conditions
- Result from variations in magma properties and eruptive dynamics during the cone-building process
Distribution of cinder cones and spatter cones
Tectonic settings
- Cinder cones are among the most common volcanic landforms on Earth
- Found in a wide range of tectonic settings (subduction zones, rift valleys, hot spot regions)
- Reflect the global prevalence of mafic to intermediate magmatism
- Spatter cones are less common than cinder cones
- Typically associated with basaltic volcanism in rift zones, shield volcanoes, and hot spot settings
- Occurrence is more limited due to the specific magma properties and eruptive conditions required for their formation
Relationship to larger volcanic systems
- Cinder cones often occur as parasitic vents on the flanks or around the base of larger volcanic edifices
- Found on the slopes of stratovolcanoes (Mount Etna, Italy) or shield volcanoes (Mauna Kea, Hawaii)
- Represent localized eruptive centers that tap into the magmatic system of the main volcano
- Spatter cones are frequently found in close proximity to lava lakes, along eruptive fissures, or as subsidiary vents
- Occur during Hawaiian-style eruptions, often associated with basaltic shield volcanoes (Kilauea, Hawaii)
- Form as a result of the accumulation of ejected spatter around the edges of lava lakes or along eruptive fissures
Monogenetic volcanic fields
- Monogenetic volcanic fields are characterized by the presence of numerous small, dispersed volcanic centers
- Contain both cinder cones and spatter cones, among other volcanic landforms
- Provide insights into the range of eruptive styles and magma compositions within a given area
- Examples of monogenetic volcanic fields include:
- Michoacán-Guanajuato Volcanic Field, Mexico
- San Francisco Volcanic Field, Arizona, USA
- Auckland Volcanic Field, New Zealand
Key Terms to Review (18)
Ashfall: Ashfall refers to the deposition of volcanic ash that occurs when an eruption ejects fine particles of rock and minerals into the atmosphere, which then settle back down onto the ground. This phenomenon can significantly impact the surrounding environment, including vegetation, water sources, and human health, depending on the amount and type of ash released during an eruption. Ashfall is a common characteristic associated with explosive volcanic eruptions, particularly in the context of cinder cones and spatter cones.
Cinder Cone: A cinder cone is a type of volcano characterized by its steep conical shape, formed from the accumulation of volcanic debris, such as ash and small rocks, that are ejected during explosive eruptions. These volcanoes are typically small and have a bowl-shaped crater at the summit, showcasing their explosive origins. The features of cinder cones can reveal important information about the eruption style and volcanic activity in different tectonic settings.
Eruptive activity: Eruptive activity refers to the processes and events associated with the eruption of magma from a volcano, which can include explosive outbursts or effusive lava flows. This term encompasses various forms of volcanic eruptions, influencing the morphology of landforms such as cinder cones and spatter cones, and determining the nature and composition of the erupting materials. Understanding eruptive activity is crucial for assessing volcanic hazards and predicting future eruptions.
G. K. Gilbert: G. K. Gilbert was an American geologist known for his pioneering work in volcanic geology and the study of cinder cones. He made significant contributions to understanding the formation and behavior of these volcanic structures, emphasizing the processes involved in their development. His research provided foundational insights into the morphology and eruption dynamics of cinder and spatter cones, influencing how volcanologists approach the study of these features today.
Hawaiian eruption: A Hawaiian eruption is a type of volcanic eruption characterized by the effusive flow of low-viscosity basaltic lava, resulting in broad, gently sloping shield volcanoes. This eruption style is typically non-explosive and produces extensive lava flows that can travel over long distances, shaping the landscape and forming features such as lava tubes and pāhoehoe flows. The gentle nature of these eruptions contrasts sharply with more explosive types, allowing for unique lava formations and a generally safer environment for observers.
Lahars: Lahars are destructive volcanic mudflows composed of a mixture of water, volcanic ash, and debris that flow down the slopes of a volcano. They can occur during eruptions or after heavy rainfall, posing significant risks to communities living near volcanoes. Understanding lahars is crucial for assessing volcanic risks, mapping hazards, and preparing communities for potential volcanic events.
Lava flow: A lava flow is the movement of molten rock (lava) that erupts from a volcano and flows down its slopes or spreads out across the ground. This geological phenomenon is crucial for understanding the various volcanic hazards, the formation of different landforms, and the impact on surrounding environments.
Lava fountaining: Lava fountaining is a volcanic activity characterized by the explosive ejection of molten rock (lava) into the air, forming spectacular jets and fountains. This phenomenon is primarily associated with basaltic magma, which has low viscosity, allowing gases to escape easily and create vigorous eruptions. Lava fountaining can significantly shape volcanic landforms and contribute to the formation of cinder cones and spatter cones.
Phreatomagmatic Eruption: A phreatomagmatic eruption occurs when magma interacts with water, leading to explosive volcanic activity. This type of eruption often produces a mixture of volcanic ash, steam, and gas, and is characterized by the rapid expansion of water vapor generated from heated water coming into contact with hot magma. These eruptions are particularly significant in understanding the explosive potential of different volcanic systems and can create various landforms and deposits.
Pumice: Pumice is a light, volcanic rock that forms when lava cools and depressurizes rapidly, trapping gas bubbles within. This unique formation process results in its low density and highly porous texture, making it an important component in various volcanic processes and products.
Pyroclastic flow: A pyroclastic flow is a fast-moving current of hot gas and volcanic matter, such as ash and rock fragments, that flows down the slopes of a volcano during an explosive eruption. This deadly phenomenon is characterized by its high temperatures and speeds, making it one of the most hazardous volcanic phenomena.
Scoria: Scoria is a type of volcanic rock characterized by its vesicular texture, which results from the rapid cooling of lava that traps gas bubbles. This lightweight and dark-colored rock is commonly associated with explosive volcanic eruptions, where it forms as lava is ejected into the air and solidifies while falling. Scoria plays a crucial role in the formation of certain types of volcanoes and can be used to study past eruptions.
Spatter cone: A spatter cone is a type of volcanic cone formed from the accumulation of molten lava droplets ejected during explosive eruptions. These cones typically have steep sides and are often smaller than other volcanic structures, such as cinder cones. The lava fragments that create spatter cones cool and solidify before falling back to the ground, leading to a distinctive conical shape that showcases the behavior of basaltic lava during eruptions.
Strombolian eruption: A strombolian eruption is characterized by moderate explosive activity that results in the ejection of volcanic material, typically including small blobs of lava, ash, and gas, into the air at intervals. These eruptions often create a distinct rhythmic pattern and are primarily associated with basaltic magma, which allows for the formation of cinder cones and spatter cones as well as influencing the flow behavior of lava.
Tephra: Tephra refers to all the fragmented volcanic material that is ejected into the air during a volcanic eruption, which can vary in size from fine ash to large volcanic bombs. Understanding tephra is essential, as it relates to the classification of eruption styles, the types of volcanic products produced, and the formation of various volcanic landforms.
Thomas A. Jaggar: Thomas A. Jaggar was an influential American volcanologist known for his pioneering work in the field of volcanology, particularly in the study of Hawaiian volcanoes. He founded the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory in 1912, which became a crucial center for volcanic research and monitoring, contributing significantly to the understanding of volcanic activity and hazards.
VEI Scale: The Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) is a logarithmic scale used to measure the explosiveness of volcanic eruptions. Ranging from 0 to 8, it helps classify eruptions based on the volume of erupted material, eruption cloud height, and qualitative observations. The VEI Scale is crucial for understanding the potential impact of eruptions, particularly when classifying different eruption styles and assessing the features associated with specific volcanic structures.
Volcanic ash: Volcanic ash is a fine particulate matter produced during explosive volcanic eruptions, consisting of tiny fragments of glass, minerals, and rock. This ash can travel long distances through the atmosphere, affecting air quality, climate, and human health while also posing significant hazards to communities and ecosystems near volcanoes.