7.2 Social and Political Impact of the New Deal
8 min read•july 31, 2024
The transformed American society, expanding federal power to address the 's devastating impacts. Roosevelt's programs provided relief, promoted recovery, and reformed the economy, marking a shift from 1920s individualism to greater government involvement in social and economic issues.
New Deal initiatives like the WPA and CCC created jobs, improved infrastructure, and fostered national identity. However, these programs faced opposition from both conservatives and liberals, sparking debates about government's role that continue to shape American politics today.
Social and cultural change in the New Deal
Impact of the Great Depression on American society
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- The Great Depression led to widespread poverty, unemployment, and social dislocation
- Millions of Americans lost their jobs, homes, and savings, leading to a sense of despair and hopelessness
- The economic crisis prompted a re-evaluation of American values and institutions, as many questioned the viability of capitalism and the American Dream
- The New Deal introduced a range of social and cultural programs aimed at providing relief, promoting recovery, and reforming the economy
- These programs represented a significant shift from the individualism and laissez-faire policies of the 1920s, as the government assumed a greater role in addressing social and economic problems
New Deal programs and their cultural impact
- The (WPA) employed millions of Americans in public works projects
- WPA workers constructed roads, bridges, and public buildings, improving infrastructure and providing jobs for the unemployed
- The WPA also sponsored cultural programs, such as the Federal Art Project, Federal Music Project, Federal Theatre Project, and Federal Writers' Project, which provided employment for artists, musicians, actors, and writers
- These cultural programs helped to promote American culture and creativity, and fostered a sense of national identity and pride during a time of crisis
- The (CCC) employed young men in conservation projects
- CCC workers planted trees, built trails, and constructed parks and recreational facilities, improving the environment and providing job training and education for youth
- The CCC helped to promote a conservation ethic and a love of the outdoors, and provided a sense of purpose and camaraderie for young men during the Depression
- The New Deal's emphasis on social welfare and government intervention in the economy represented a significant shift in American values and attitudes
- The New Deal's programs, such as Social Security and unemployment insurance, provided a safety net for Americans and helped to reduce poverty and insecurity
- The New Deal's reforms, such as the regulation of banks and the stock market, helped to restore confidence in the economy and prevent future crises
- The New Deal's cultural programs helped to promote a sense of national identity and unity during a time of crisis and uncertainty, and laid the foundation for the growth of American culture and the arts in the post-World War II era
Debates surrounding New Deal programs
Opposition from the left and right
- The New Deal faced opposition from both the left and the right, with critics arguing that it either went too far or not far enough in addressing the economic crisis
- Conservatives and business leaders criticized the New Deal as a form of socialism or communism, arguing that it undermined free enterprise and individual initiative
- Some liberals and progressives criticized the New Deal for not going far enough in redistributing wealth and power, and for preserving the basic structure of capitalism
- The Supreme Court initially struck down several key New Deal programs as unconstitutional
- The Court's decisions in cases such as Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States (1935) and United States v. Butler (1936) invalidated key New Deal programs, such as the (NIRA) and the (AAA)
- Roosevelt responded with his controversial "court-packing" plan, which would have allowed him to appoint additional justices to the Supreme Court and ensure a more favorable ruling on New Deal programs
- The plan was ultimately rejected by Congress, but the Court's subsequent decisions, such as NLRB v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp. (1937), upheld key New Deal programs and established a more expansive interpretation of federal power
Criticisms of specific New Deal programs
- The New Deal's agricultural policies, such as the Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA), were criticized for favoring large farmers over small farmers and sharecroppers
- The AAA provided subsidies to farmers who agreed to reduce their crop production, in order to raise prices and stabilize the agricultural market
- However, the program often benefited large, wealthy farmers at the expense of small farmers and sharecroppers, who were forced off the land or received little assistance
- The New Deal's labor policies, such as the (NLRA), were opposed by business leaders who saw them as a threat to their power and profitability
- The NLRA guaranteed workers' rights to organize and bargain collectively, and established the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) to enforce these rights
- Business leaders argued that the NLRA and other pro-labor policies would lead to higher costs, lower profits, and a loss of managerial control over the workplace
- The New Deal's social welfare programs, such as Social Security and Aid to Dependent Children, were criticized by some as a form of "welfare state" that would create dependency and undermine individual responsibility
- Critics argued that these programs would discourage work and initiative, and create a permanent underclass dependent on government handouts
- Defenders of the New Deal argued that these programs were necessary to provide a basic standard of living for all Americans, and that they would promote social stability and economic growth in the long run
New Deal's impact on various groups
Women and the New Deal
- The New Deal's programs had a significant impact on women, who benefited from increased employment opportunities and social welfare programs
- The Works Progress Administration (WPA) and other New Deal agencies employed thousands of women in a variety of jobs, including teaching, nursing, and clerical work
- The provided benefits to widows and single mothers, helping to reduce poverty and improve living standards for many women and their families
- However, women also faced ongoing discrimination and inequality in the workplace and society
- Women were often paid less than men for the same work, and were excluded from many high-paying jobs and industries
- The New Deal's programs often reinforced traditional gender roles and expectations, with women being channeled into "female" occupations such as teaching and nursing
African Americans and the New Deal
- African Americans benefited from some New Deal programs, but also faced ongoing discrimination and inequality
- The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) and other New Deal agencies provided employment opportunities for African Americans, but often in segregated camps and work crews
- The Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) helped some African American farmers, but also led to the displacement of many sharecroppers and tenant farmers, who were disproportionately African American
- The Federal Housing Administration (FHA) helped to promote homeownership, but often excluded African Americans through discriminatory lending practices and redlining
- The New Deal did little to address the systemic racism and discrimination faced by African Americans in American society
- Many New Deal programs were administered at the state and local level, where segregation and discrimination were often entrenched
- The New Deal's focus on economic recovery and reform often overshadowed issues of racial justice and civil rights
Organized labor and the New Deal
- Organized labor benefited from the New Deal's pro-labor policies and the growth of union membership
- The National Labor Relations Act (NLRA) guaranteed workers' rights to organize and bargain collectively, leading to a surge in union membership and activity
- The (FLSA) established a minimum wage and maximum work hours, improving working conditions and living standards for many workers
- The (CIO) emerged as a powerful force in the , organizing workers in mass production industries such as steel, automobiles, and rubber
- However, the New Deal's pro-labor policies also faced opposition from business leaders and conservatives
- Business leaders argued that unions and collective bargaining would lead to higher costs, lower profits, and a loss of managerial control over the workplace
- Conservatives criticized the New Deal's labor policies as a form of socialism or communism, and argued that they would undermine free enterprise and individual initiative
New Deal's influence on federal power
Expansion of federal government power and responsibility
- The New Deal represented a significant expansion of federal government power and responsibility, setting the stage for the growth of the modern welfare state
- The New Deal's programs and policies shifted the balance of power from the states to the federal government, as Washington assumed a greater role in economic and social policy
- The New Deal established new federal agencies and regulatory bodies, such as the (SEC) and the (FCC), which continued to shape American life long after the 1930s
- The New Deal's legacy can be seen in the continued growth of federal social welfare programs, such as Medicare, Medicaid, and food stamps, which have become an integral part of the American social safety net
Debates over the role of government
- The New Deal's expansion of federal power also led to concerns about the concentration of power in Washington and the potential for government overreach and abuse
- Critics argued that the New Deal set a dangerous precedent for federal intervention in the economy and society, paving the way for the growth of "big government" in the post-World War II era
- Defenders of the New Deal argued that the federal government had a responsibility to address national problems and promote the general welfare, and that the New Deal's programs and policies were necessary and justified responses to the Great Depression
- The New Deal's impact on American federalism and the role of government remains a subject of ongoing debate and controversy
- Conservatives and libertarians argue that the New Deal's expansion of federal power has led to a bloated and inefficient government that stifles economic growth and individual freedom
- Liberals and progressives argue that the New Deal's programs and policies have helped to create a more just and equitable society, and that the federal government has a vital role to play in addressing social and economic problems
- The debate over the proper role and scope of the federal government continues to shape American politics and policy to this day, from debates over healthcare and education to discussions of economic policy and regulation
Key Terms to Review (26)
African American Civil Rights: African American civil rights refer to the social and political movements aimed at achieving equal rights and eliminating racial discrimination against African Americans. These movements have sought to secure various rights, including the right to vote, access to quality education, and protection from discriminatory laws, particularly during the 20th century. Key events, legislation, and figures in this struggle highlight the ongoing fight for justice and equality in American society.
Agricultural Adjustment Act: The Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) was a New Deal program enacted in 1933 aimed at boosting agricultural prices by reducing surpluses. It sought to raise the income of farmers who had been struggling due to the Great Depression by paying them to limit production of certain crops, thereby stabilizing prices and income in the agricultural sector.
Civilian Conservation Corps: The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) was a New Deal program established in 1933 that aimed to provide jobs for unemployed young men while simultaneously promoting environmental conservation. The CCC focused on projects such as reforestation, building parks, and soil erosion control, helping to address both the economic hardships of the Great Depression and the need for natural resource management.
Congress of Industrial Organizations: The Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) was a federation of labor unions in the United States that aimed to organize industrial workers, particularly those in mass production industries, during the 1930s and 1940s. It played a crucial role in expanding labor rights and advocating for workers' rights amid the backdrop of the New Deal, emphasizing the need for collective bargaining and improved working conditions.
Conservative Opposition: Conservative opposition refers to the resistance and criticism from individuals and groups who advocate for traditional values, limited government intervention, and free-market principles in response to progressive policies. This opposition was particularly significant during the New Deal era, where many conservatives argued that Franklin D. Roosevelt's programs expanded federal power and undermined individual liberties and economic freedoms.
Court-packing plan: The court-packing plan was a controversial proposal by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1937 aimed at increasing the number of justices on the Supreme Court from nine to as many as fifteen. Roosevelt's intent was to ensure that the Court would support his New Deal legislation, which faced challenges from conservative justices who deemed several of his programs unconstitutional. This plan stirred significant debate and backlash, leading to discussions about the balance of power among the branches of government and the limits of executive authority.
Deficit spending: Deficit spending occurs when a government spends more money than it earns in revenue, leading to a shortfall that requires borrowing to finance. This approach is often used during economic downturns to stimulate growth and create jobs, as seen during the New Deal era in the United States. The practice can lead to increased national debt but is viewed by some economists as necessary to revive a struggling economy and support social programs.
Eleanor Roosevelt: Eleanor Roosevelt was an influential American political figure, diplomat, and activist who served as the First Lady of the United States from 1933 to 1945. She played a crucial role in shaping New Deal programs and advocating for social reforms, significantly impacting American society and politics during her husband Franklin D. Roosevelt's presidency.
Fair Labor Standards Act: The Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) is a U.S. labor law enacted in 1938 that establishes minimum wage, overtime pay eligibility, recordkeeping, and youth employment standards. This legislation was a crucial component of the New Deal reforms aimed at improving working conditions and ensuring fair compensation for workers, particularly in the wake of the Great Depression.
Federal Communications Commission: The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) is an independent U.S. government agency responsible for regulating interstate and international communications by radio, television, wire, satellite, and cable. Established in 1934, the FCC was part of a broader movement during the New Deal aimed at modernizing communication infrastructure and ensuring fair access to information for all Americans.
Franklin D. Roosevelt: Franklin D. Roosevelt, often referred to as FDR, was the 32nd President of the United States, serving from 1933 until his death in 1945. He is best known for his leadership during the Great Depression and World War II, implementing a series of innovative programs and reforms known as the New Deal to address the economic crisis and promote recovery.
Great Depression: The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic downturn that began in 1929 and lasted until the late 1930s. It had devastating effects on employment, industrial production, and the financial system, profoundly impacting social and political structures. The crisis reshaped labor movements, consumer behavior, government policies, and the overall role of the federal government in American life.
Housing relief: Housing relief refers to government programs and initiatives aimed at providing assistance to individuals and families struggling with housing instability, particularly during economic downturns. This term is closely tied to the broader context of the New Deal, which sought to alleviate the severe economic hardships faced by many Americans during the Great Depression by implementing various measures to support housing accessibility and affordability.
Job creation: Job creation refers to the process of generating new employment opportunities within an economy. It is a crucial aspect of economic recovery, particularly during periods of recession or high unemployment, as it helps individuals regain financial stability and supports overall economic growth.
Keynesian Economics: Keynesian economics is an economic theory developed by John Maynard Keynes that advocates for increased government expenditures and lower taxes to stimulate demand and pull the global economy out of recession. This approach focuses on the idea that aggregate demand is the primary driving force in an economy, especially during downturns. By influencing consumer spending and investment through fiscal policies, it aims to stabilize economic cycles, making it particularly relevant in discussions about recovery programs in times of economic distress.
Labor movement: The labor movement refers to the organized effort of workers to improve their rights, working conditions, and wages through collective action, often involving unions. This movement has historically sought to address the inequalities faced by workers in industrial societies, leading to significant reforms and changes in labor laws. The labor movement gained momentum during the late 19th and early 20th centuries and was significantly influenced by the policies of various governmental programs aimed at stabilizing the economy and promoting social welfare.
Liberal critiques: Liberal critiques refer to the evaluations and analyses from a liberal perspective that question the effectiveness and implications of policies, practices, and ideologies within a socio-political context. In the context of the New Deal, these critiques often focused on how the programs addressed or failed to address issues of social justice, economic inequality, and the role of government intervention in the economy.
National Industrial Recovery Act: The National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) was a key piece of legislation enacted in 1933 as part of Roosevelt's New Deal, aimed at stimulating economic recovery during the Great Depression. It sought to promote industrial growth and fair competition by establishing codes of fair practice for industries, boosting employment, and improving labor conditions. The act played a significant role in reshaping the relationship between the federal government and the economy.
National Labor Relations Act: The National Labor Relations Act (NLRA), enacted in 1935, is a foundational piece of labor legislation in the United States that protects the rights of workers to organize, engage in collective bargaining, and take collective action. The NLRA established the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) to oversee and enforce these rights, marking a significant shift in government policy toward labor relations during Roosevelt's New Deal era.
New Deal: The New Deal was a series of programs, public work projects, financial reforms, and regulations enacted by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in response to the Great Depression. It aimed to provide relief for the unemployed, stimulate economic recovery, and implement reforms to prevent future economic downturns. This transformative period reshaped the role of the federal government in American life and established a safety net for citizens.
New Deal Coalition: The New Deal Coalition was a diverse group of political allies formed in the 1930s that supported Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal policies aimed at recovering from the Great Depression. This coalition included a mix of labor unions, urban political machines, African Americans, farmers, and progressive intellectuals, which together reshaped the Democratic Party and American politics for decades.
Realignment: Realignment refers to a significant and lasting shift in the political landscape, particularly in party identification and electoral support. This term is often used to describe periods when the existing political coalitions change, leading to new voting patterns and shifts in party power. Realignment can arise from major events or changes in social, economic, or political circumstances, leading to long-term transformations in the electorate's behavior.
Securities and Exchange Commission: The Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) is a U.S. government agency established in 1934 to regulate the securities industry, protect investors, maintain fair and efficient markets, and facilitate capital formation. The creation of the SEC was a key component of the New Deal, aimed at restoring public confidence in the financial system after the stock market crash of 1929 and the Great Depression. It enforces federal securities laws and has the authority to oversee securities exchanges, brokerage firms, and other market participants.
Social Security Act: The Social Security Act, enacted in 1935, established a system of old-age benefits for workers, unemployment insurance, and aid to dependent mothers and children, the blind, and the disabled. This landmark legislation was a response to the economic turmoil of the Great Depression, aiming to provide a safety net for the most vulnerable populations and help stabilize the economy by ensuring that people had some income during tough times.
Wagner Act: The Wagner Act, officially known as the National Labor Relations Act of 1935, was a landmark piece of labor legislation in the United States that aimed to protect workers' rights to organize and engage in collective bargaining. It established the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) to oversee union elections and investigate unfair labor practices, significantly empowering labor unions and reshaping labor relations in the U.S. during the New Deal era.
Works Progress Administration: The Works Progress Administration (WPA) was a New Deal agency created in 1935 to provide jobs and support for the unemployed during the Great Depression. It aimed to stimulate the economy by funding public works projects, including infrastructure improvements, arts programs, and community services, ultimately employing millions of Americans and leaving a lasting impact on the nation’s landscape.