thermodynamics unit 7 study guides

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Entropy is a measure of the disorder or randomness in a system and increases as temperature increases
  • At absolute zero (0 K), a perfect crystal has zero entropy since there is no disorder
• Absolute zero is the lowest possible temperature where all molecular motion ceases
  • Corresponds to -273.15°C or -459.67°F
• Heat capacity is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a substance by one degree
  • Approaches zero as temperature approaches absolute zero
• Residual entropy refers to the entropy that remains in a system even at absolute zero due to degeneracy or disorder
• Thermal equilibrium occurs when two systems in contact have the same temperature and no net heat flow between them

Historical Context and Development

• The Third Law of Thermodynamics was developed in the early 20th century to address the behavior of systems at very low temperatures
• Walther Nernst, a German chemist, proposed the heat theorem in 1906 which stated that entropy changes approach zero as temperature approaches absolute zero
  • This laid the groundwork for the Third Law
• The Nernst-Simon statement, formulated by Franz Simon in 1937, provided a more rigorous mathematical formulation of the Third Law
• Experimental work by Giauque and others in the 1920s and 1930s provided strong evidence supporting the Third Law
  • Measurements of heat capacities of various substances at low temperatures confirmed the predicted behavior
• The development of the Third Law helped to establish the absolute temperature scale and provided insights into the quantum mechanical nature of matter

Statement of the Third Law

• The entropy of a perfect crystal at absolute zero is exactly equal to zero
  • In other words, the entropy of a system approaches a constant value as the temperature approaches absolute zero
• For systems with non-zero entropy at absolute zero (residual entropy), the change in entropy approaches zero as temperature approaches absolute zero
  • Mathematically, $\lim_{T \to 0} \Delta S = 0$
• The Third Law provides an absolute reference point for the determination of entropy
• It is impossible to reach absolute zero in a finite number of steps or in a finite amount of time
  • Known as the unattainability principle

Mathematical Formulation

• The mathematical statement of the Third Law is given by $\lim_{T \to 0} \left(\frac{\partial S}{\partial T}\right)_V = 0$
  • This means that the change in entropy with respect to temperature approaches zero as temperature approaches absolute zero
• The heat capacity of a system is related to the change in entropy with temperature by $C = T \left(\frac{\partial S}{\partial T}\right)_V$
  • As $T \to 0$, $C \to 0$ according to the Third Law
• For a perfect crystal, the entropy at absolute zero is given by $S(0) = 0$
  • This serves as a reference point for calculating absolute entropies
• The Third Law can be used to calculate the absolute entropy of a substance at any temperature by integrating the heat capacity: $S(T) = \int_0^T \frac{C(T')}{T'} dT'$

Implications and Applications

• The Third Law has important implications for the behavior of materials at low temperatures
  • Superconductivity and superfluidity are phenomena that occur near absolute zero
• Understanding the Third Law is crucial for the development of cryogenic technologies and the study of condensed matter physics
• The Third Law provides a fundamental limit on the efficiency of refrigeration and heat engines
  • It is impossible to achieve 100% efficiency in a heat engine or to reach absolute zero in a refrigerator
• The Third Law is used in the calculation of chemical equilibria and reaction feasibility at low temperatures
  • Helps predict the spontaneity and direction of chemical reactions
• The Third Law has applications in astrophysics, particularly in understanding the behavior of matter in extreme environments like neutron stars and white dwarfs

Experimental Verification

• Experimental measurements of heat capacities at low temperatures have provided strong support for the Third Law
  • Heat capacities of various substances (metals, dielectrics, superconductors) approach zero as $T \to 0$
• Measurements of the entropy changes in chemical reactions and phase transitions near absolute zero are consistent with the Third Law
  • Entropy changes become very small at low temperatures
• Spectroscopic studies of materials at low temperatures have confirmed the decrease in molecular motion and vibrational modes predicted by the Third Law
• Investigations of the magnetic properties of materials at low temperatures (magnetization, susceptibility) have also verified the Third Law
  • Magnetic entropy contributions vanish as $T \to 0$

Limitations and Exceptions

• The Third Law applies strictly to perfect crystalline solids at absolute zero
  • Real materials may have defects, impurities, or other sources of disorder that lead to non-zero entropy at $T = 0$
• Systems with degenerate ground states (multiple lowest energy configurations) can have residual entropy at absolute zero
  • Examples include ice, carbon monoxide, and certain alloys
• Glasses and other amorphous materials do not have a unique ground state and may violate the Third Law
  • They have a non-zero residual entropy due to structural disorder
• Quantum systems with strongly correlated electrons or frustrated interactions can exhibit unusual low-temperature behavior that deviates from the Third Law
  • Examples include spin liquids and quantum spin ice

Connection to Other Laws of Thermodynamics

• The Third Law is closely related to the Second Law of Thermodynamics, which states that the entropy of an isolated system always increases
  • The Third Law provides an absolute reference point for entropy and sets a lower limit on the entropy of a system
• The Third Law is consistent with the First Law of Thermodynamics (conservation of energy) and the Zeroth Law (thermal equilibrium)
  • It describes the behavior of entropy as a system approaches thermal equilibrium at absolute zero
• The Third Law has implications for the efficiency of heat engines and refrigerators, which are governed by the Second Law
  • It sets a fundamental limit on the minimum temperature that can be achieved in a refrigeration cycle
• The Third Law is important for understanding the microscopic basis of the other laws of thermodynamics
  • It relates the macroscopic properties of a system (entropy, temperature) to the microscopic behavior of its constituent particles