🥵Thermodynamics Unit 3 – Energy, Heat, and Work

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Energy represents the capacity to do work or cause change in a system
• Thermodynamics studies the relationships between heat, work, temperature, and energy
• Heat refers to the transfer of thermal energy between systems or within a system
• Work is the energy transfer that occurs when a force acts through a distance
• Internal energy represents the total kinetic and potential energy of a system's particles
• Enthalpy measures the total heat content of a system at constant pressure
• Entropy quantifies the amount of disorder or randomness in a system
  • Increases as a system becomes more disordered or chaotic
  • Always increases in spontaneous processes and the universe as a whole

Forms of Energy and Energy Transfer

• Kinetic energy is the energy of motion, dependent on an object's mass and velocity
  • Examples include a moving car, flowing water, or a spinning turbine
• Potential energy is stored energy due to an object's position or configuration
  • Gravitational potential energy depends on an object's mass and height above a reference point
  • Elastic potential energy is stored in deformed materials, such as stretched springs or compressed gases
• Chemical energy is stored in the bonds between atoms in molecules
  • Released or absorbed during chemical reactions (combustion of fuel)
• Thermal energy is the kinetic energy of particles in a substance, related to its temperature
• Electrical energy is associated with the movement of charged particles (electricity)
• Energy can be transferred between systems through work, heat, or mass transfer
  • Conduction, convection, and radiation are mechanisms of heat transfer

First Law of Thermodynamics

• States that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only converted from one form to another
• Mathematically expressed as: $\Delta U = Q - W$
  • $\Delta U$ is the change in internal energy of the system
  • $Q$ is the heat added to the system
  • $W$ is the work done by the system
• Applies to closed systems, where mass is conserved
• Indicates that the change in internal energy of a system equals the heat added minus the work done
• Provides a framework for analyzing energy balance in thermodynamic processes
  • Such as heat engines, refrigerators, and power plants

Heat and Work Calculations

• Heat transfer can be calculated using the equation: $Q = mc\Delta T$
  • $Q$ is the heat transferred
  • $m$ is the mass of the substance
  • $c$ is the specific heat capacity of the substance
  • $\Delta T$ is the change in temperature
• Work done by a gas during expansion or compression can be calculated using: $W = \int_{V_1}^{V_2} P dV$
  • $W$ is the work done
  • $P$ is the pressure of the gas
  • $dV$ is the change in volume
  • $V_1$ and $V_2$ are the initial and final volumes, respectively
• Work done by a force acting through a distance is given by: $W = Fd$
  • $F$ is the force applied
  • $d$ is the distance over which the force acts
• Power is the rate at which work is done or energy is transferred, calculated as: $P = \frac{W}{t}$ or $P = \frac{Q}{t}$
  • $P$ is power
  • $W$ is work done
  • $Q$ is heat transferred
  • $t$ is the time interval

Thermodynamic Systems and Processes

• A thermodynamic system is a portion of the universe that is being studied
  • Can be open (exchanges matter and energy with surroundings), closed (exchanges energy but not matter), or isolated (exchanges neither energy nor matter)
• Surroundings are everything outside the system
• Thermodynamic processes describe the path a system takes from one equilibrium state to another
  • Isothermal processes occur at constant temperature
  • Isobaric processes occur at constant pressure
  • Isochoric (or isovolumetric) processes occur at constant volume
  • Adiabatic processes occur without heat transfer between the system and surroundings
• Reversible processes can be reversed without any net change to the system or surroundings
  • Ideal, but not achievable in reality due to factors like friction and heat loss
• Irreversible processes cannot be reversed without a net change (most real-world processes)

Applications in Engineering

• Heat engines convert thermal energy into mechanical work (internal combustion engines, steam turbines)
  • Efficiency is limited by the Carnot efficiency, which depends on the temperatures of the hot and cold reservoirs
• Refrigerators and heat pumps move thermal energy from a cold reservoir to a hot reservoir, requiring work input
  • Used in air conditioning, refrigeration, and space heating
• Power plants generate electricity by converting various energy sources (fossil fuels, nuclear, solar, wind) into mechanical work, which drives generators
• Thermodynamic principles are used in the design and optimization of HVAC systems, ensuring comfort and energy efficiency in buildings
• Aerospace engineering relies on thermodynamics for propulsion systems, such as jet engines and rockets
  • Analyzing combustion, heat transfer, and fluid dynamics is crucial for their design and performance

Common Misconceptions

• Confusing heat and temperature
  • Heat is energy transfer, while temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of particles in a substance
• Assuming that all energy is converted into useful work
  • The second law of thermodynamics limits the efficiency of energy conversion due to entropy
• Believing that entropy only increases in isolated systems
  • Entropy can decrease locally, but it always increases in the universe as a whole
• Thinking that adiabatic processes do not involve energy transfer
  • While there is no heat transfer, work can still be done by or on the system
• Misinterpreting the first law of thermodynamics to mean that energy is always conserved
  • Energy is conserved in closed systems, but open systems can exchange energy with their surroundings

Practice Problems and Examples

1. A 2 kg block of aluminum (specific heat capacity 900 J/kg·K) is heated from 20°C to 80°C. Calculate the heat transferred to the block.
2. A gas expands from 2 m³ to 4 m³ at a constant pressure of 100 kPa. Determine the work done by the gas during this process.
3. An electric motor has a power output of 5 kW and operates for 30 minutes. How much work does the motor perform?
4. A heat pump has a coefficient of performance (COP) of 3.5. If it consumes 2 kW of electrical power, calculate the heat transferred to the hot reservoir.
5. A Carnot engine operates between a hot reservoir at 500 K and a cold reservoir at 300 K. If the engine performs 1000 J of work per cycle, determine the heat input from the hot reservoir and the heat rejected to the cold reservoir.