🥵Thermodynamics Unit 18 – Thermodynamics in Materials Science

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Thermodynamics studies the relationships between heat, work, energy, and matter
• System refers to the specific material or region under study (metal alloy)
• Surroundings include everything outside the system that can interact with it (furnace)
• State variables describe the current condition of a system (temperature, pressure, volume)
  • Intensive variables are independent of the system size (density)
  • Extensive variables depend on the size of the system (mass, volume)
• Equilibrium occurs when a system's state variables remain constant over time
  • Thermal equilibrium exists when the system and surroundings have the same temperature
  • Mechanical equilibrium exists when the system and surroundings have the same pressure
• Process describes the path a system takes from one state to another (heating, cooling)

Laws of Thermodynamics

• Zeroth Law states that if two systems are in thermal equilibrium with a third system, they are in thermal equilibrium with each other
• First Law states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only converted from one form to another
  • Mathematically expressed as $\Delta U = Q - W$, where $\Delta U$ is the change in internal energy, $Q$ is heat added, and $W$ is work done by the system
• Second Law states that the total entropy of an isolated system always increases over time
  • Entropy is a measure of the disorder or randomness of a system
  • Spontaneous processes occur naturally and increase the entropy of the universe
• Third Law states that the entropy of a perfect crystal at absolute zero is zero
  • Absolute zero (0 K or -273.15°C) is the lowest possible temperature
  • Unattainable in practice due to the infinite steps required to reach it

Energy and Enthalpy

• Internal energy ($U$) is the sum of the kinetic and potential energies of a system's particles
  • Depends on the system's temperature, volume, and composition
• Heat ($Q$) is the transfer of thermal energy between a system and its surroundings
  • Positive when heat is added to the system, negative when heat is removed
• Work ($W$) is the energy transfer due to a force acting over a distance
  • Positive when work is done by the system, negative when work is done on the system
• Enthalpy ($H$) is the sum of a system's internal energy and the product of its pressure and volume
  • Mathematically expressed as $H = U + PV$
  • Useful for processes occurring at constant pressure (most chemical reactions)
• Specific heat capacity ($c$) is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one unit mass of a substance by one degree
  • Varies with temperature and pressure
  • Higher values indicate a greater ability to store thermal energy (water vs. metal)

Entropy and Free Energy

• Entropy ($S$) is a measure of the disorder or randomness of a system
  • Increases with increasing temperature, volume, or number of particles
  • Mathematically expressed as $\Delta S = \int \frac{dQ}{T}$, where $dQ$ is the heat added reversibly and $T$ is the absolute temperature
• Gibbs free energy ($G$) is the maximum amount of non-expansion work that can be extracted from a system
  • Mathematically expressed as $G = H - TS$, where $H$ is enthalpy, $T$ is absolute temperature, and $S$ is entropy
  • Spontaneous processes have a negative change in Gibbs free energy ($\Delta G < 0$)
• Helmholtz free energy ($A$) is similar to Gibbs free energy but applies to processes at constant volume
  • Mathematically expressed as $A = U - TS$, where $U$ is internal energy, $T$ is absolute temperature, and $S$ is entropy
• Maxwell relations are a set of equations that relate the partial derivatives of thermodynamic potentials ($U$, $H$, $A$, $G$)
  • Useful for deriving other thermodynamic properties and equations

Phase Equilibria and Diagrams

• Phase refers to a physically distinct and homogeneous portion of a system (solid, liquid, gas)
• Phase transition occurs when a substance changes from one phase to another (melting, boiling)
  • Accompanied by changes in properties such as density, enthalpy, and entropy
• Phase diagram is a graphical representation of the conditions at which different phases are stable
  • Pressure-temperature ($P$-$T$) diagrams are common for single-component systems (water)
  • Temperature-composition ($T$-$x$) diagrams are used for binary systems (alloys)
• Gibbs phase rule relates the number of components ($C$), phases ($P$), and degrees of freedom ($F$) in a system
  • Mathematically expressed as $F = C - P + 2$
  • Degrees of freedom are the number of independent variables that can be changed without altering the number of phases
• Lever rule is used to determine the relative amounts of phases present in a two-phase region of a phase diagram
  • Based on the distances between the overall composition and the phase boundaries

Thermodynamic Properties of Materials

• Molar volume ($V_m$) is the volume occupied by one mole of a substance
  • Varies with temperature and pressure
  • Used to calculate density and other properties
• Thermal expansion coefficient ($\alpha$) is the fractional change in length or volume per unit change in temperature
  • Positive for most materials, indicating expansion upon heating
  • Important for designing components that experience temperature changes (bridges, engines)
• Compressibility ($\beta$) is the fractional change in volume per unit change in pressure
  • Inverse of the bulk modulus, which measures a material's resistance to compression
  • Higher values indicate a more easily compressed material (gases vs. solids)
• Thermal conductivity ($k$) is the rate at which heat is conducted through a material
  • Varies with temperature, density, and composition
  • Higher values indicate a better ability to transfer heat (metals vs. insulators)
• Electrical conductivity ($\sigma$) is the ability of a material to conduct electric current
  • Depends on the number of free electrons and their mobility
  • Metals have high electrical conductivity due to their delocalized electrons

Applications in Materials Science

• Materials selection involves choosing the best material for a given application based on its properties and performance requirements
  • Ashby charts plot material properties (strength vs. density) to aid in selection
• Processing techniques are used to control the structure and properties of materials
  • Heat treatment can alter the microstructure and mechanical properties of alloys (annealing, quenching)
  • Sintering consolidates powdered materials into solid components (ceramics, metals)
• Corrosion is the degradation of a material due to chemical reactions with its environment
  • Thermodynamics can predict the stability of materials in different environments (Pourbaix diagrams)
  • Corrosion prevention methods include coatings, cathodic protection, and alloying
• Energy materials convert between different forms of energy (solar cells, batteries)
  • Efficiency is limited by thermodynamic factors such as the Carnot efficiency and the Shockley-Queisser limit
  • Materials design can optimize properties such as band gap, conductivity, and stability

Problem-Solving Techniques

• Identify the system and surroundings, specifying the boundary and any transfers of energy or matter
• Determine the initial and final states of the system, noting any changes in temperature, pressure, volume, or composition
• Apply the relevant laws and equations of thermodynamics, such as the First Law ($\Delta U = Q - W$) or the Gibbs free energy equation ($\Delta G = \Delta H - T\Delta S$)
  • Use appropriate sign conventions for heat ($Q$) and work ($W$)
  • Consider any assumptions or approximations, such as constant pressure or reversibility
• Solve for the desired quantity, checking units and reasonableness of the answer
  • Use tabulated data for properties such as enthalpy of formation, entropy, or heat capacity
  • Interpolate or extrapolate data if necessary, using appropriate techniques (linear interpolation)
• Interpret the results in the context of the problem, discussing any implications or limitations
  • Relate the answer to the problem statement and any real-world applications
  • Consider sources of error or uncertainty, such as measurement limitations or approximations