🥵Thermodynamics Unit 12 – Heat Engines, Refrigerators & Heat Pumps

Key Concepts

• Thermodynamic systems exchange energy with their surroundings in the form of heat and work
• Heat engines convert thermal energy into mechanical work by exploiting temperature differences
• Thermal efficiency measures the fraction of heat input that is converted into useful work output
• Carnot cycle represents the most efficient theoretical heat engine operating between two thermal reservoirs
• Refrigerators and heat pumps move heat from a cold reservoir to a hot reservoir using external work input
• Coefficient of Performance (COP) quantifies the efficiency of refrigerators and heat pumps
• Entropy is a measure of the unavailability of a system's thermal energy for conversion into mechanical work

Laws of Thermodynamics Refresher

• Zeroth Law states that if two systems are in thermal equilibrium with a third system, they are in thermal equilibrium with each other
• First Law (Conservation of Energy) states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only converted from one form to another
  • Mathematically expressed as $\Delta U = Q - W$, where $\Delta U$ is the change in internal energy, $Q$ is heat added, and $W$ is work done by the system
• Second Law states that the total entropy of an isolated system always increases over time
  • Implies that heat flows naturally from hot to cold reservoirs and work is required to move heat from cold to hot reservoirs
• Third Law states that the entropy of a perfect crystal at absolute zero temperature is zero

Heat Engine Basics

• Heat engines operate in a cyclic process, returning to their initial state after each cycle
• Heat is absorbed from a high-temperature reservoir ($Q_H$) and partially converted into work ($W$), while the remaining heat is rejected to a low-temperature reservoir ($Q_L$)
• The net work output is the difference between the heat absorbed and the heat rejected: $W_{net} = Q_H - Q_L$
• Thermal efficiency ($\eta$) is defined as the ratio of net work output to heat input: $\eta = \frac{W_{net}}{Q_H} = \frac{Q_H - Q_L}{Q_H}$
• Carnot efficiency sets the upper limit for the thermal efficiency of any heat engine operating between two thermal reservoirs: $\eta_{Carnot} = 1 - \frac{T_L}{T_H}$, where $T_L$ and $T_H$ are the absolute temperatures of the cold and hot reservoirs, respectively

Types of Heat Engines

• Internal combustion engines (gasoline and diesel engines) burn fuel inside the engine to generate heat and pressure, which is converted into mechanical work
• External combustion engines (steam engines and Stirling engines) generate heat outside the engine and use a working fluid (steam or air) to convert heat into mechanical work
• Gas turbines compress air, mix it with fuel, and ignite the mixture to generate high-pressure exhaust gases that drive a turbine
• Jet engines use the thrust generated by the high-velocity exhaust gases to propel aircraft
• Geothermal power plants use heat from the Earth's interior to generate steam, which drives turbines to produce electricity

Efficiency and Performance

• Increasing the temperature difference between the hot and cold reservoirs improves the thermal efficiency of a heat engine
• Minimizing irreversible processes (friction, heat loss, and throttling) helps approach the Carnot efficiency limit
• Regeneration in gas turbines and Stirling engines preheats the incoming working fluid using heat from the outgoing exhaust, improving efficiency
• Combined cycle power plants use the exhaust heat from a gas turbine to generate steam for a secondary steam turbine, increasing overall efficiency
• Cogeneration (Combined Heat and Power) systems capture waste heat from power generation for heating or industrial processes, enhancing fuel utilization efficiency

Refrigerators and Heat Pumps

• Refrigerators and heat pumps are heat engines operating in reverse, moving heat from a cold reservoir to a hot reservoir using external work input
• The Coefficient of Performance (COP) for refrigerators is the ratio of heat removed from the cold reservoir to the work input: $COP_{ref} = \frac{Q_L}{W}$
• The COP for heat pumps is the ratio of heat delivered to the hot reservoir to the work input: $COP_{hp} = \frac{Q_H}{W}$
• The Carnot COP sets the theoretical maximum efficiency for refrigerators and heat pumps: $COP_{Carnot,ref} = \frac{T_L}{T_H - T_L}$ and $COP_{Carnot,hp} = \frac{T_H}{T_H - T_L}$
• Vapor-compression refrigeration cycles (used in air conditioners and refrigerators) employ a working fluid (refrigerant) that undergoes phase changes to absorb and release heat

Real-World Applications

• Automotive engines convert chemical energy from fuel into mechanical work to propel vehicles
• Power plants generate electricity using various heat engine cycles (Rankine, Brayton, and combined cycles)
• Refrigerators and air conditioners maintain cool temperatures in homes, businesses, and food storage facilities
• Heat pumps provide efficient space heating and cooling by moving heat between indoor and outdoor environments
• Industrial processes rely on heat engines and heat pumps for power generation, heating, cooling, and refrigeration
• Cryogenic systems use cascaded refrigeration cycles to achieve extremely low temperatures for scientific research and medical applications

Problem-Solving Strategies

• Identify the type of thermodynamic system (heat engine, refrigerator, or heat pump) and the relevant components (reservoirs, working fluid, and processes)
• Determine the given information (temperatures, heat transfer, work, or efficiencies) and the desired quantity to be calculated
• Apply the appropriate thermodynamic laws, principles, and equations to solve for the unknown variable
  • Use the First Law of Thermodynamics to relate heat, work, and internal energy changes
  • Employ the efficiency or COP equations to calculate the performance of heat engines, refrigerators, or heat pumps
• For Carnot cycles, use the Carnot efficiency or COP equations based on the reservoir temperatures
• Consider energy balances and sign conventions for heat and work (positive for heat added to the system and work done by the system, negative for heat removed from the system and work done on the system)
• Double-check units and ensure that the final answer is consistent with the problem statement and physical intuition