🧊Thermodynamics II Unit 6 – Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles

Key Concepts and Terminology

• Thermodynamic cycles convert energy between heat and work to achieve cooling or heating
• Refrigerant is the working fluid that undergoes phase changes to absorb and release heat
• Evaporator absorbs heat from the cooled space, causing the refrigerant to evaporate
• Condenser releases heat to the environment, causing the refrigerant to condense
• Compressor increases the pressure and temperature of the refrigerant vapor
• Expansion valve reduces the pressure and temperature of the refrigerant liquid
• Coefficient of Performance (COP) measures the efficiency of a refrigeration or heat pump system
• Ton of Refrigeration (TR) represents the cooling capacity equivalent to melting one ton of ice in 24 hours

Refrigeration Cycle Basics

• Refrigeration cycles transfer heat from a low-temperature source to a high-temperature sink
• The basic refrigeration cycle consists of four processes: compression, condensation, expansion, and evaporation
• During compression, the refrigerant vapor is compressed to a high pressure and temperature
• In the condenser, the high-pressure, high-temperature vapor releases heat to the environment and condenses into a liquid
• The expansion process reduces the pressure and temperature of the refrigerant liquid through an expansion valve or capillary tube
• Inside the evaporator, the low-pressure, low-temperature refrigerant absorbs heat from the cooled space and evaporates
• The evaporated refrigerant returns to the compressor, completing the cycle
• The refrigeration cycle operates in the opposite direction of the natural heat flow, requiring work input

Components of Refrigeration Systems

• Compressor is the heart of the refrigeration system, compressing the refrigerant vapor and raising its pressure and temperature
• Types of compressors include reciprocating, scroll, screw, and centrifugal compressors
• Condenser is a heat exchanger that facilitates heat transfer from the high-pressure, high-temperature refrigerant vapor to the environment
• Condensers can be air-cooled, water-cooled, or evaporative, depending on the application and available resources
• Expansion devices, such as thermostatic expansion valves (TXV) or capillary tubes, reduce the pressure and temperature of the refrigerant liquid
• The expansion process ensures proper refrigerant flow and maintains the desired evaporator temperature
• Evaporator is another heat exchanger that allows heat transfer from the cooled space to the low-pressure, low-temperature refrigerant
• Evaporator designs include finned-tube, plate, and shell-and-tube heat exchangers
• Refrigerant lines connect the components of the refrigeration system, carrying the refrigerant in its various states

Vapor Compression Cycle Analysis

• The ideal vapor compression cycle consists of four reversible processes: isentropic compression, isobaric condensation, isenthalpic expansion, and isobaric evaporation
• In reality, the compression process is not isentropic due to irreversibilities, resulting in a higher compressor discharge temperature
• The condensation and evaporation processes experience pressure drops due to fluid friction in the heat exchangers
• The expansion process is considered isenthalpic, as the enthalpy remains constant across the expansion device
• Pressure-Enthalpy (P-h) diagrams are used to analyze the vapor compression cycle, plotting the pressure and enthalpy of the refrigerant at various states
• The P-h diagram helps determine the refrigerating effect, work of compression, and heat rejection in the cycle
• Subcooling of the refrigerant liquid after the condenser increases the refrigerating effect and improves system performance
• Superheating of the refrigerant vapor before the compressor ensures complete evaporation and protects the compressor from liquid slugging

Heat Pump Operations

• Heat pumps are refrigeration systems that transfer heat from a low-temperature source to a high-temperature sink for heating purposes
• The basic principle of a heat pump is the same as a refrigeration system, but the desired output is the heat released in the condenser
• In heating mode, the outdoor coil acts as the evaporator, absorbing heat from the environment, while the indoor coil acts as the condenser, releasing heat to the conditioned space
• Heat pumps can also operate in cooling mode, reversing the roles of the indoor and outdoor coils through a reversing valve
• The efficiency of a heat pump is expressed as the Coefficient of Performance (COP), which is the ratio of the heat output to the work input
• Ground-source heat pumps (geothermal) utilize the relatively constant temperature of the earth as the heat source or sink, improving efficiency compared to air-source heat pumps
• Heat pumps are an energy-efficient alternative to conventional heating systems, as they move heat rather than generating it directly

Performance Metrics and Efficiency

• Coefficient of Performance (COP) is the primary measure of efficiency for refrigeration and heat pump systems
• For refrigeration systems, $COP_{\text{cooling}} = \frac{Q_{\text{evaporator}}}{W_{\text{compressor}}}$, where $Q_{\text{evaporator}}$ is the heat absorbed in the evaporator and $W_{\text{compressor}}$ is the work input to the compressor
• For heat pump systems, $COP_{\text{heating}} = \frac{Q_{\text{condenser}}}{W_{\text{compressor}}}$, where $Q_{\text{condenser}}$ is the heat released in the condenser
• The Carnot COP represents the theoretical maximum efficiency for a refrigeration or heat pump cycle operating between two temperature limits
• $COP_{\text{Carnot}} = \frac{T_L}{T_H - T_L}$ for refrigeration and $COP_{\text{Carnot}} = \frac{T_H}{T_H - T_L}$ for heat pumps, where $T_L$ and $T_H$ are the absolute temperatures of the low and high-temperature reservoirs, respectively
• The actual COP is always lower than the Carnot COP due to irreversibilities in the real cycle, such as friction, heat transfer limitations, and pressure drops
• Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER) is another performance metric, expressing the cooling capacity in British Thermal Units (BTU) per hour per watt of electrical input
• Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio (SEER) and Heating Seasonal Performance Factor (HSPF) are used to measure the average efficiency of air conditioners and heat pumps over a cooling or heating season, respectively

Advanced Cycles and Modifications

• Multi-stage compression with intercooling improves efficiency by reducing the compressor discharge temperature and work input
• In a multi-stage compression system, the refrigerant vapor is compressed in stages, with cooling between each stage to remove the heat of compression
• Cascade refrigeration systems use two or more separate refrigeration cycles with different refrigerants to achieve lower temperatures than a single cycle
• The high-temperature cycle rejects heat to the low-temperature cycle, which further cools the refrigerant to reach the desired low temperature
• Absorption refrigeration systems use a heat source to drive the refrigeration cycle, replacing the compressor with a generator, absorber, and pump
• In an absorption system, a refrigerant-absorbent pair (e.g., ammonia-water or lithium bromide-water) is used to achieve cooling through a series of heat transfer and mass transfer processes
• Thermoelectric cooling utilizes the Peltier effect to create a temperature difference between two junctions of dissimilar materials when an electric current is applied
• Thermoelectric systems are compact, silent, and have no moving parts, making them suitable for small-scale applications and electronics cooling

Real-World Applications and Case Studies

• Residential and commercial air conditioning systems use vapor compression cycles to maintain comfortable indoor temperatures
• Refrigerators and freezers in households and supermarkets preserve food and perishable goods by maintaining low temperatures
• Industrial refrigeration systems are used in food processing, chemical plants, and manufacturing facilities for process cooling and storage
• Cold storage warehouses and transportation refrigeration units ensure the safe storage and distribution of temperature-sensitive products (pharmaceuticals, fruits, vegetables)
• Data centers and server rooms rely on precision air conditioning and liquid cooling systems to maintain optimal operating temperatures for electronic equipment
• Cryogenic systems, such as those used in medical and scientific research, utilize cascaded or mixed-refrigerant cycles to achieve ultra-low temperatures (below -150°C)
• District cooling systems centrally produce chilled water and distribute it to multiple buildings for air conditioning, improving efficiency and reducing energy consumption
• Geothermal heat pumps, also known as ground-source heat pumps, provide efficient heating and cooling for buildings by exchanging heat with the ground or groundwater