🫱🏼‍🫲🏾Theories of International Relations Unit 1 – Realism and Neorealism in IR Theory

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Realism emphasizes the role of power, self-interest, and the anarchic nature of the international system in shaping state behavior
• Anarchy refers to the absence of a central authority or government to enforce rules and maintain order in the international system
• Power is the ability of a state to influence or control the behavior of other states, often through military, economic, or political means
• National interest is the primary goal of states, which is to ensure their own survival, security, and prosperity
• Balance of power is a key mechanism in realism, where states form alliances or engage in arms races to prevent any single state from becoming too powerful
• Security dilemma arises when actions taken by a state to increase its own security, such as military buildup, can be perceived as threatening by other states, leading to increased tensions and potential conflict
• Sovereignty is the supreme authority of a state within its own borders and the recognition of this authority by other states in the international system

Historical Context and Origins

• Realism has roots in ancient political thought, with thinkers like Thucydides (5th century BC) and Machiavelli (16th century) emphasizing the role of power in international relations
• The Peace of Westphalia (1648) established the modern nation-state system and the principle of sovereignty, which are central to realist thought
• The Industrial Revolution and the rise of nationalism in the 19th century led to increased competition among states for power and resources
• World War I and World War II demonstrated the destructive potential of great power rivalries and the limitations of international institutions in preventing conflict
• The Cold War (1947-1991) between the United States and the Soviet Union was characterized by a bipolar balance of power and the threat of nuclear war, which reinforced realist perspectives on international relations
  • The development of nuclear weapons raised the stakes of great power conflict and led to the concept of mutually assured destruction (MAD)
  • The superpower rivalry also played out in proxy wars and interventions in the developing world (Vietnam, Afghanistan)

Core Assumptions of Realism

• States are the primary actors in international relations, and they operate in an anarchic system without a central authority to enforce rules or maintain order
• States are rational actors that pursue their own national interests, which are defined in terms of power and security
• Power is the key determinant of state behavior and international outcomes, and states seek to maximize their power relative to others
• International law and institutions have limited ability to constrain state behavior or prevent conflict, as they ultimately depend on the willingness of powerful states to enforce them
• Morality and ideology are secondary to power considerations in international relations, and states will prioritize their own interests over moral or ideological concerns
• The international system is characterized by constant competition and the possibility of war, as states seek to protect their security and expand their power
  • This can lead to arms races, alliance formation, and other forms of strategic behavior aimed at maintaining or altering the balance of power

Major Thinkers and Their Contributions

• Hans Morgenthau (1904-1980) is considered the father of modern realism, and his book "Politics Among Nations" (1948) laid out the core principles of classical realism
  • Morgenthau emphasized the role of power in international relations and the inherent conflict between states pursuing their national interests
• E.H. Carr (1892-1982) challenged idealist theories of international relations in his book "The Twenty Years' Crisis" (1939), arguing that power, not morality or law, was the key factor in international politics
• George Kennan (1904-2005) was an American diplomat and strategist who developed the policy of containment towards the Soviet Union during the Cold War, based on a realist assessment of Soviet power and intentions
• Henry Kissinger (1923-) served as U.S. Secretary of State and National Security Advisor, and his realist approach to diplomacy emphasized the balance of power and the need for great power cooperation to maintain stability
• Kenneth Waltz (1924-2013) is the founder of neorealism, which built on classical realism by emphasizing the structural constraints of the international system on state behavior

Neorealism: Evolution and Differences

• Neorealism, also known as structural realism, emerged in the 1970s as a response to the limitations of classical realism in explaining international outcomes
• Kenneth Waltz's "Theory of International Politics" (1979) argued that the structure of the international system, defined by the distribution of power among states, is the key determinant of state behavior
  • Waltz distinguished between the ordering principle of the international system (anarchy) and the distribution of capabilities among states (polarity)
• Neorealism focuses on the systemic level of analysis, rather than the unit level of individual states and their characteristics
• Defensive realism, associated with Waltz, argues that states primarily seek to maintain their position in the international system and will only pursue expansion when threatened
• Offensive realism, developed by John Mearsheimer, argues that states seek to maximize their power and will pursue hegemony whenever possible, as the best way to ensure their security in an anarchic system
• Neorealism has been criticized for its emphasis on material power and its neglect of non-state actors, transnational forces, and the role of domestic politics in shaping state behavior

Criticisms and Limitations

• Realism has been criticized for its pessimistic view of human nature and its emphasis on conflict and competition in international relations
• The focus on states as unitary rational actors neglects the role of domestic politics, non-state actors, and transnational forces in shaping international outcomes
• Realism's emphasis on power and national interest may overlook the importance of international law, institutions, and norms in regulating state behavior and promoting cooperation
• The balance of power theory has been challenged by the emergence of new threats, such as terrorism and global environmental problems, which require collective action rather than competition among states
• Constructivist theories argue that realism neglects the role of ideas, identities, and social constructions in shaping state behavior and international relations
• Critical theorists argue that realism serves to legitimize and perpetuate existing power structures and inequalities in the international system

Real-World Applications

• Realism has been influential in shaping foreign policy decisions, particularly in great powers like the United States, Russia, and China
  • The U.S. policy of containment during the Cold War was based on a realist assessment of Soviet power and intentions
  • China's assertive behavior in the South China Sea and its economic and military rise can be seen as a classic example of a rising power seeking to expand its influence and challenge the existing balance of power
• Realist theories have been used to analyze and predict the behavior of states in international crises and conflicts, such as the Cuban Missile Crisis (1962) and the Iraq War (2003)
• The concept of the security dilemma has been applied to regional conflicts, such as the India-Pakistan rivalry and the Arab-Israeli conflict, where actions taken by one side to increase its security are perceived as threatening by the other, leading to an escalation of tensions
• Realism has also been used to explain the difficulties in achieving international cooperation on issues such as climate change, where states may prioritize their own economic interests over collective action to address global problems

Debates and Controversies

• The relative importance of power, institutions, and norms in shaping international outcomes remains a key debate between realists and liberals in international relations theory
• The role of non-state actors, such as multinational corporations, NGOs, and international organizations, in the international system is a challenge to traditional realist assumptions about the primacy of states
• The rise of China and the potential for a power transition in the international system has led to debates among realists about the likelihood and consequences of great power conflict
  • Some argue that China's rise is likely to lead to a hegemonic war with the United States, while others emphasize the possibility of great power cooperation and accommodation
• The relevance of realism in an increasingly globalized and interdependent world has been questioned, as transnational challenges such as climate change, pandemics, and economic crises require collective action and cooperation among states
• The ethics of realism and its emphasis on power and national interest over moral considerations has been a source of controversy, particularly in cases where states have pursued policies that violate human rights or international law in the name of national security