9.2 Women's suffrage movement
10 min read•august 21, 2024
The women's suffrage movement was a pivotal force in the Modern Period, challenging traditional gender roles and fighting for equal political representation. Emerging from early feminist thought, it gained momentum through conventions, protests, and the tireless efforts of leaders like and .
Suffragists employed diverse tactics, from peaceful demonstrations to militant actions, while facing fierce opposition from anti-suffragists and entrenched power structures. The movement's global reach and intersectional challenges shaped its evolution, ultimately leading to significant legal victories and ongoing efforts for worldwide.
Origins of women's suffrage
- Women's suffrage movement emerged as a critical component of the broader feminist movement during the Modern Period
- Challenged traditional gender roles and societal norms, seeking equal rights and representation for women
- Laid the foundation for future civil rights movements and social reforms
Early feminist movements
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- Enlightenment ideas inspired early feminist thought in the 18th century
- Mary Wollstonecraft's "" (1792) advocated for women's education and political participation
- Abolitionist movement in the United States provided a platform for women to engage in political activism
- Women's involvement in temperance societies fostered organizational skills and public speaking experience
Seneca Falls Convention
- First women's rights convention held in Seneca Falls, in 1848
- Organized by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott
- Produced the , modeled after the Declaration of Independence
- Outlined grievances and demands for women's rights, including suffrage
- Attracted approximately 300 attendees, both men and women
Key suffragist leaders
- Susan B. Anthony collaborated with Elizabeth Cady Stanton to form the (NWSA)
- Lucy Stone founded the (AWSA), focusing on state-level campaigns
- led the (NAWSA) and developed the "Winning Plan" strategy
- formed the National Woman's Party and introduced militant tactics inspired by British suffragettes
Strategies and tactics
- Suffrage movement employed diverse strategies to achieve its goals during the Modern Period
- Tactics evolved over time, adapting to changing political and social landscapes
- Combination of peaceful and militant approaches ultimately led to success
Peaceful protests vs militancy
- Peaceful protests included parades, rallies, and silent vigils
- National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) favored peaceful methods and gradual change
- Militant tactics emerged in the early 20th century, inspired by British suffragettes
- National Woman's Party engaged in civil disobedience, including picketing the White House
- Hunger strikes and force-feeding of imprisoned suffragists garnered public sympathy
Lobbying and petitions
- Suffragists lobbied state legislatures and Congress for
- Organized letter-writing campaigns to pressure politicians
- Collected millions of signatures on petitions supporting women's suffrage
- Formed alliances with sympathetic male politicians to advance their cause
- Utilized state referendum campaigns to build grassroots support
Public speeches and debates
- Suffragists held public meetings and lectures to educate and persuade audiences
- Engaged in debates with anti-suffragists to counter opposition arguments
- Utilized "soapbox" speeches in public spaces to reach wider audiences
- Trained women in public speaking and debate techniques
- Leveraged lyceum circuits and Chautauqua assemblies to spread their message
Opposition to women's suffrage
- Anti-suffrage movement emerged as a significant obstacle during the Modern Period
- Reflected deeply entrenched societal norms and power structures
- Resistance came from various sectors of society, including both men and women
Anti-suffragist arguments
- Claimed women's suffrage would destabilize the family unit and traditional gender roles
- Argued women lacked the intellectual capacity and education for political participation
- Asserted women's interests were already represented by male family members (virtual representation)
- Warned that women voters would support prohibition, threatening the liquor industry
- Claimed women's suffrage would lead to increased divorce rates and moral decay
Political resistance
- Conservative politicians opposed women's suffrage as a threat to existing power structures
- Southern Democrats feared women's votes would strengthen federal power over states' rights
- Liquor industry lobbied against suffrage, fearing women would support prohibition
- Some male politicians worried about losing their seats to female candidates
- State legislatures often blocked or delayed suffrage amendments and referendums
Social and cultural barriers
- Victorian ideals of separate spheres for men and women reinforced opposition
- Religious institutions often supported traditional gender roles and opposed suffrage
- Media outlets frequently portrayed suffragists as unfeminine or radical
- Class divisions led some upper-class women to oppose suffrage for working-class women
- Cultural stereotypes about women's emotional nature and decision-making abilities persisted
International suffrage movement
- Women's suffrage movement transcended national boundaries during the Modern Period
- Global exchange of ideas and tactics strengthened the movement worldwide
- Varying degrees of success and timelines across different countries and cultures
British suffragettes
- (WSPU) founded by Emmeline Pankhurst in 1903
- Adopted militant tactics including property destruction and hunger strikes
- "Deeds, not words" became the motto of the WSPU
- of 1913 allowed for the temporary release and re-arrest of hunger-striking suffragettes
- Suffragette Emily Davison died after stepping in front of the King's horse at the 1913
Global spread of suffrage
- New Zealand became the first self-governing country to grant women's suffrage in 1893
- Finland was the first European country to grant full suffrage rights to women in 1906
- Russian Revolution of 1917 led to women's suffrage in the Soviet Union
- Latin American countries granted women's suffrage at various times (Ecuador in 1929, Brazil in 1932)
- Women in many Middle Eastern and African countries gained suffrage in the mid-20th century
Cross-cultural influences
- International Women's Suffrage Alliance founded in 1904 to promote global cooperation
- American suffragists drew inspiration from British militant tactics
- Suffrage movements in colonized nations often intertwined with independence movements
- Pan-African conferences addressed women's rights and suffrage across the African diaspora
- International press coverage of suffrage activities facilitated the exchange of ideas and strategies
Legal and political milestones
- Women's suffrage movement achieved significant legal and political victories during the Modern Period
- Gradual progress at state and national levels culminated in constitutional amendments
- Continued efforts to ensure voting rights for all women beyond initial suffrage victories
State-level suffrage victories
- Territory granted women's suffrage in 1869, maintaining it upon statehood in 1890
- Colorado became the first state to adopt women's suffrage by popular referendum in 1893
- California granted women's suffrage in 1911, doubling the number of women voters in the U.S.
- New York's suffrage victory in 1917 marked a turning point for the national movement
- By 1919, women could vote in 15 states, primarily in the West
19th Amendment ratification
- First introduced in Congress in 1878, reintroduced every session for 40 years
- Passed by the House of Representatives on May 21, 1919
- Approved by the Senate on June 4, 1919
- Tennessee became the 36th state to ratify on August 18, 1920, securing the necessary three-fourths majority
- Officially certified on August 26, 1920, granting women the right to vote nationwide
Voting Rights Act impact
- Passed in 1965 to enforce the 15th Amendment and combat racial discrimination in voting
- Prohibited literacy tests and other discriminatory practices that disenfranchised voters
- Significantly increased voter registration and turnout among African American women
- Section 5 required certain jurisdictions to obtain federal preclearance for changes to voting laws
- Subsequent amendments expanded protections for language minorities and other groups
Intersectionality in suffrage
- Women's suffrage movement grappled with intersecting issues of race, class, and sexuality
- Highlighted tensions and divisions within the movement during the Modern Period
- Ongoing debates about inclusivity and representation shaped the movement's evolution
Race and women's suffrage
- African American women faced exclusion from white-dominated suffrage organizations
- founded in 1896 to address both racial and gender discrimination
- challenged racism within the suffrage movement
- Some white suffragists argued for women's suffrage as a means to maintain white supremacy
- Native American women's suffrage rights varied by tribal citizenship and federal policies
Class divisions among suffragists
- Working-class women often prioritized labor rights alongside suffrage
- Middle and upper-class suffragists sometimes alienated working-class supporters
- Socialist and labor movements incorporated women's suffrage into broader platforms
- Settlement house workers like Jane Addams bridged class divides in the suffrage movement
- Some working-class women viewed suffrage as a luxury compared to immediate economic concerns
LGBTQ+ representation
- Same-sex relationships existed among suffragists, though often not openly acknowledged
- Susan B. Anthony and Anna Dickinson's close relationship sparked speculation
- Jane Addams and Mary Rozet Smith lived together for 40 years
- Suffrage movement provided opportunities for women to challenge traditional gender roles
- LGBTQ+ history within the suffrage movement has gained more recognition in recent years
Media and public perception
- Media played a crucial role in shaping public opinion on women's suffrage during the Modern Period
- Suffragists utilized various forms of media to promote their cause and counter opposition
- Public perception of the movement evolved over time, influenced by changing social norms
Newspaper coverage
- Mainstream newspapers initially portrayed suffragists as unfeminine and radical
- Suffrage organizations established their own publications (The Woman's Journal, The Suffragist)
- Coverage of militant actions and arrests increased public awareness of the movement
- Investigative journalism exposed harsh treatment of imprisoned suffragists
- Newspaper editorials debated the merits and drawbacks of women's suffrage
Political cartoons
- Cartoons both supported and mocked the suffrage movement
- Anti-suffrage cartoons often depicted suffragists as masculine or neglectful of domestic duties
- Pro-suffrage cartoons highlighted the injustice of denying women the vote
- Symbolic representations of Justice and Liberty were used to advocate for women's rights
- Cartoonists like Nina Allender created positive images of the "Suffragist Girl" for propaganda
Suffrage in literature
- Novels like "The Bostonians" by Henry James explored the suffrage movement's impact on society
- Charlotte Perkins Gilman's "Herland" imagined a utopian society of women
- Suffragist writers produced plays and poems to promote their cause
- Autobiographies and memoirs of suffragists provided firsthand accounts of the movement
- Children's literature began to incorporate themes of women's rights and suffrage
Legacy and ongoing challenges
- Women's suffrage movement left a lasting impact on society beyond the Modern Period
- Continued efforts to address gender inequality in politics and beyond
- Global variations in women's voting rights and political participation persist
Women in politics post-suffrage
- Gradual increase in women's representation in elected offices
- became the first woman elected to U.S. Congress in 1916
- Formation of women's caucuses and political organizations (League of Women Voters)
- Emergence of women leaders in various political parties and ideologies
- Ongoing efforts to achieve gender parity in political representation
Voter suppression issues
- Continued challenges to voting rights for marginalized communities
- Voter ID laws disproportionately affect women who change names after marriage
- Restrictions on early voting and polling place closures impact women with caregiving responsibilities
- Gerrymandering and redistricting efforts can dilute women's voting power
- Online harassment and threats target women politicians and voters
Global women's voting rights
- Saudi Arabia granted women the right to vote in 2015, one of the last countries to do so
- Vatican City remains the only country where women cannot vote in national elections
- Some countries tie voting rights to property ownership or literacy, disproportionately affecting women
- Efforts to increase women's political participation in post-conflict societies (Rwanda, Afghanistan)
- International organizations monitor and promote women's voting rights worldwide
Key figures in suffrage
- Influential leaders shaped the women's suffrage movement throughout the Modern Period
- Diverse backgrounds and approaches contributed to the movement's success
- Legacy of these figures continues to inspire modern feminist and civil rights movements
Susan B. Anthony
- Co-founded the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) in 1869
- Arrested for voting illegally in the 1872 presidential election
- Published "The Revolution" newspaper to promote women's rights
- Gave her famous "Is It a Crime for a Citizen of the United States to Vote?" speech in 1873
- Anthony Amendment, which became the 19th Amendment, named in her honor
Elizabeth Cady Stanton
- Principal organizer of the in 1848
- Authored the Declaration of Sentiments, modeled after the Declaration of Independence
- Collaborated with Susan B. Anthony for over 50 years
- Served as president of the National Woman Suffrage Association from 1869 to 1890
- Wrote "The Woman's Bible," challenging religious justifications for women's subordination
Alice Paul
- Founded the National Woman's Party in 1916
- Organized the first pickets of the White House for women's suffrage
- Introduced militant tactics to the U.S. suffrage movement, inspired by British suffragettes
- Arrested and force-fed while imprisoned for protesting
- Authored the , first introduced to Congress in 1923
Suffrage movement artifacts
- Material culture of the women's suffrage movement provides insight into its strategies and values
- Artifacts serve as tangible links to the historical struggle for women's rights
- Museums and archives preserve these items for future generations to study and appreciate
Suffragist banners and symbols
- Purple, white, and gold colors adopted as suffrage movement symbols
- "Votes for Women" sashes worn by suffragists during parades and protests
- Suffrage flags featuring stars to represent states that had granted women the right to vote
- Pins and buttons with slogans like "Votes for Women" and "Equality of Rights"
- Symbolic use of Lady Liberty and Justice imagery on banners and posters
Historical documents
- Original copies of the Declaration of Sentiments from the Seneca Falls Convention
- Susan B. Anthony's arrest warrant for illegal voting in 1872
- Petitions with millions of signatures supporting women's suffrage
- Correspondence between suffragist leaders discussing strategy and tactics
- Congressional records of debates and votes on suffrage amendments
Archival photographs
- Images of suffrage parades and demonstrations in major cities
- Portraits of key suffragist leaders and lesser-known activists
- Photographs of women voting for the first time after winning suffrage
- Documentation of anti-suffragist protests and activities
- Visual records of suffragists' imprisonment and force-feeding
Key Terms to Review (28)
A Vindication of the Rights of Woman: A Vindication of the Rights of Woman is a foundational feminist text written by Mary Wollstonecraft in 1792, advocating for women's education and their inherent rights. The work challenges the prevailing notions of female inferiority and argues that women should have the same opportunities for education and self-improvement as men. This text laid the groundwork for future women's rights movements, emphasizing equality and rational thought in the pursuit of social justice.
Alice Paul: Alice Paul was a prominent American suffragist and women's rights activist who played a crucial role in the women's suffrage movement in the early 20th century. She is best known for her strong advocacy for the passage of the 19th Amendment, which granted women the right to vote, and for her more radical approach compared to other suffragists of her time, including organized protests and hunger strikes.
American Woman Suffrage Association: The American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA) was an organization founded in 1869 to advocate for women's right to vote in the United States. It aimed to promote suffrage through state-level campaigns and sought to unite women from various backgrounds under a single cause, emphasizing a more moderate approach compared to other suffrage groups.
Carrie Chapman Catt: Carrie Chapman Catt was a prominent American suffragist and women's rights activist who played a key role in the women's suffrage movement in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. She is best known for her leadership of the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) and her strategy of using state-by-state campaigns to secure voting rights for women, culminating in the passage of the 19th Amendment in 1920.
Cat and Mouse Act: The Cat and Mouse Act, officially known as the Prisoners (Temporary Discharge for Ill Health) Act 1913, was a British law that allowed for the temporary release of suffragettes who were on hunger strikes. This legislation was an attempt to address the ongoing hunger strikes of women imprisoned for their activism in the women's suffrage movement, essentially letting authorities control the situation while also avoiding the responsibility of allowing prisoners to die in custody.
Declaration of sentiments: The Declaration of Sentiments was a pivotal document in the women’s suffrage movement, presented at the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848. This declaration outlined the grievances and demands of women, highlighting the injustices they faced and calling for equal rights, including the right to vote. It marked the beginning of organized advocacy for women's rights in the United States.
Elizabeth Cady Stanton: Elizabeth Cady Stanton was a prominent American social activist, abolitionist, and leading figure in the early women's rights movement. She is best known for her role in organizing the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848, which marked the beginning of the organized women's suffrage movement in the United States and called for equal rights for women, including the right to vote.
Epsom Derby: The Epsom Derby is a prestigious horse race that takes place annually in June at Epsom Downs Racecourse in Surrey, England. Established in 1780, it is one of the most celebrated events in horse racing and is often referred to as the premier flat horse race in the world. The event draws significant attention and reflects not only the cultural importance of horse racing in Britain but also intersects with social movements, including women's suffrage, as women began to assert their rights and visibility in public life during this period.
Equal Rights Amendment: The Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) is a proposed amendment to the United States Constitution aimed at guaranteeing equal legal rights for all American citizens regardless of sex. It was first introduced in Congress in 1923 and has been a crucial part of the push for women's rights, linking to broader civil rights movements that advocate for equality across various demographics.
Feminist theory: Feminist theory is a framework that examines the ways in which gender influences social structures, power dynamics, and individual experiences, advocating for women's rights and equality. It seeks to understand and challenge the historical and contemporary inequalities that women face, emphasizing the importance of considering gender as a critical lens through which to analyze societal issues. Feminist theory also connects to various movements aimed at achieving women's suffrage, reproductive rights, and equal representation in politics and other spheres of life.
Gender equality: Gender equality refers to the state in which individuals of all genders have equal rights, responsibilities, and opportunities. It encompasses the belief that everyone, regardless of their gender, should have the same access to resources and decision-making processes. This concept is crucial for achieving social justice and is closely linked to movements advocating for women's rights and suffrage.
Ida B. Wells-Barnett: Ida B. Wells-Barnett was an African American journalist, activist, and suffragist known for her pioneering work in anti-lynching campaigns and her advocacy for women's rights. Her contributions were vital in connecting racial justice with the women's suffrage movement, highlighting the struggles faced by African American women during this time. Through her writings and activism, she brought attention to the intersection of race and gender, making her a key figure in advocating for both civil rights and women's suffrage.
Jeannette Rankin: Jeannette Rankin was the first woman to be elected to the United States Congress, serving as a representative from Montana. Her election in 1916 was a significant milestone for the women's suffrage movement, symbolizing the increasing political power and influence of women in American society. Rankin's commitment to pacifism and social reform further highlighted the progressive ideals of the time, linking her work to broader movements for women's rights.
National American Woman Suffrage Association: The National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) was a key organization in the women's suffrage movement in the United States, formed in 1890 to advocate for women's right to vote. It was the result of the merging of two earlier organizations and played a pivotal role in coordinating efforts, organizing campaigns, and lobbying for suffrage at both state and federal levels. NAWSA aimed to unite various suffrage groups and provide a unified front in the fight for voting rights.
National Association of Colored Women: The National Association of Colored Women (NACW) was an organization founded in 1896 that aimed to advocate for the rights and welfare of African American women and their communities. It played a significant role in the larger women's suffrage movement by addressing issues such as racial discrimination, education, and social justice while working towards women's voting rights.
National Woman Suffrage Association: The National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) was an organization founded in 1869 that aimed to secure voting rights for women in the United States. It played a crucial role in the women's suffrage movement by advocating for a constitutional amendment to grant women the right to vote, distinguishing itself from other groups by focusing on a broader agenda that included issues like women's education and employment.
New York: New York is a major city in the United States known for its cultural diversity, economic power, and historical significance. It played a pivotal role in the women's suffrage movement as a center for activism and political engagement, where many key events and organizations emerged to promote women's rights, particularly the right to vote.
Progressive Era: The Progressive Era was a period in American history from the 1890s to the 1920s characterized by social activism and political reform aimed at addressing the issues caused by industrialization, urbanization, and corruption in government. This era witnessed significant changes in various sectors, including women’s rights, labor rights, and public health, as reformers sought to promote social justice and improve the lives of Americans.
Seneca Falls Convention: The Seneca Falls Convention was the first women's rights convention held in the United States, taking place in July 1848 in Seneca Falls, New York. This pivotal event marked the beginning of the organized women's suffrage movement, where attendees gathered to discuss social, civil, and religious rights for women. The convention produced the 'Declaration of Sentiments,' which outlined grievances and called for equality between men and women, emphasizing the demand for women's suffrage as a key issue.
Social Movement Theory: Social movement theory is a framework that analyzes the development, dynamics, and impact of social movements, which are organized efforts by groups of people to promote or resist change in society. This theory helps to understand how movements emerge, gain momentum, and influence social, political, or economic systems, emphasizing the role of collective action and identity in mobilizing individuals for a common cause.
Suffrage legislation: Suffrage legislation refers to the legal frameworks and laws enacted to grant and protect the right to vote for specific groups, particularly women, in various societies. These laws have played a crucial role in advancing democratic principles by ensuring that previously marginalized groups, like women, gain equal participation in the electoral process and influence political decisions.
Susan B. Anthony: Susan B. Anthony was a prominent American social reformer and women's rights activist who played a crucial role in the women's suffrage movement during the 19th century. Known for her tireless efforts to secure voting rights for women, Anthony co-founded the National Woman Suffrage Association and was instrumental in organizing campaigns that highlighted the importance of women's participation in democracy. Her work laid the groundwork for future advancements in women's rights and continues to inspire activists today.
Voting Rights: Voting rights refer to the legal entitlements that guarantee individuals the ability to participate in elections and influence government decisions through their votes. The struggle for voting rights, particularly during the women's suffrage movement, aimed to ensure that all citizens, regardless of gender, had the opportunity to exercise this fundamental democratic right. This fight was a critical part of broader social and political reforms aimed at achieving equality and justice within society.
Women's hour: the great fight to win the vote: Women's hour: the great fight to win the vote refers to the significant and intense movement during the late 19th and early 20th centuries in which women campaigned vigorously for their right to vote. This period marked a pivotal moment in the broader women's suffrage movement, emphasizing the dedication, activism, and sacrifices made by women as they sought equality and representation in democratic processes.
Women's rights: Women's rights refer to the social, political, and economic rights that promote equality and ensure that women have the same opportunities as men. This movement has been crucial in advocating for issues such as voting rights, education, employment, and reproductive rights, which aim to dismantle systemic gender inequalities and empower women in various spheres of life.
Women's Social and Political Union: The Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU) was a militant organization founded in 1903 in the United Kingdom to fight for women's suffrage, advocating for women's right to vote. It was notable for its use of direct action tactics, including protests, civil disobedience, and sometimes vandalism, which distinguished it from other suffrage movements that favored more peaceful approaches. The WSPU aimed to raise public awareness about women's disenfranchisement and mobilize women across social classes to demand political rights.
World War I Impact: The impact of World War I refers to the profound changes and consequences brought about by the war, which lasted from 1914 to 1918. This global conflict not only resulted in significant loss of life and destruction but also led to major social, political, and economic transformations, especially regarding movements like women's suffrage. The war created new opportunities for women as they entered the workforce in unprecedented numbers, ultimately strengthening their calls for voting rights and greater social equality.
Wyoming: Wyoming is a state in the western United States that became the first to grant women the right to vote in 1869. This historic decision made Wyoming a significant landmark in the women's suffrage movement, demonstrating progressive attitudes toward gender equality at a time when many states were resistant to such changes.