4.2 Interpersonal Communication Theories
5 min read•august 7, 2024
Interpersonal communication theories explain how we build and maintain relationships. They cover everything from how we open up to others to how we handle conflicts and adjust our communication style.
These theories shed light on why we act the way we do in relationships. They explore concepts like , , and the push-pull between closeness and independence that shape our interactions with others.
Theories of Relationship Development
Social Penetration Theory
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- Developed by and in 1973
- Describes the process of relationship development as a gradual, orderly process that moves from superficial to intimate levels of exchange
- Uses the analogy of an onion to describe how people gradually reveal layers of personal information as a relationship develops
- Posits that self-disclosure is the primary way that superficial relationships progress to more intimate ones
- Breadth of self-disclosure refers to the range of topics discussed (hobbies, family, work)
- Depth of self-disclosure refers to the degree of personal information shared about each topic (sharing deep fears or insecurities)
- Reciprocity of self-disclosure is important people tend to match each other's disclosures in amount and degree of intimacy
Uncertainty Reduction Theory
- Developed by and in 1975
- Suggests that people communicate to reduce uncertainty about others
- Asserts that reducing uncertainty is a central goal in initial interactions because it allows people to predict others' behavior and guide their own actions
- Identifies three types of uncertainty:
- refers to uncertainty about others' beliefs and attitudes
- refers to uncertainty about how others will act
- refers to uncertainty about how an interaction will unfold
- People engage in information-seeking behaviors to reduce uncertainty (asking questions, observing behavior, talking to others who know the person)
- As uncertainty decreases, liking tends to increase
Social Exchange Theory
- Rooted in economics and psychology
- Views interpersonal relationships as an exchange process in which people weigh the potential benefits and costs of social relationships
- Suggests that people try to maximize rewards and minimize costs in relationships
- Rewards can be tangible (gifts, favors) or intangible (companionship, support)
- Costs can include time, effort, and emotional energy invested in a relationship
- People are more likely to pursue relationships in which the rewards outweigh the costs
- refers to the expectations people have about the balance of rewards and costs a relationship should offer based on past experiences
- refers to the lowest level of rewards a person will accept given available alternative relationships
- Relationships are more satisfying when rewards outweigh costs, exceed one's comparison level, and are better than other available alternatives
Theories of Relational Dynamics
Expectancy Violations Theory
- Developed by Judee Burgoon in the 1970s
- Proposes that people hold expectations about the nonverbal and verbal behavior of others
- Expectations are based on social norms, past experience, and the nature of the relationship
- Violations of these expectations can be positive (a friend remembering your birthday) or negative (a coworker invading your personal space)
- How a violation is interpreted depends on the violator's perceived reward value
- Positive violations by high-reward violators tend to increase attraction
- Negative violations and violations by low-reward violators tend to decrease attraction
- Violations lead to increased arousal and cognitive appraisal to interpret the meaning of the violation
Relational Dialectics Theory
- Developed by and in the 1990s
- Views relationships as a process of ongoing tension between contradictory impulses
- Identifies three main dialectics in relationships:
- refers to the tension between independence and togetherness
- refers to the tension between self-disclosure and privacy
- refers to the tension between stability and change
- Suggests that these tensions are normal and unavoidable parts of relationships
- Tensions are managed through communication rather than resolved
- Relational partners can respond to tensions by alternating between poles over time (spending some weekends together and some apart), segmenting their lives (being open at home but closed at work), or reframing the tension (viewing time apart as enhancing togetherness)
Communication Accommodation Theory
- Developed by in the 1970s
- Focuses on the adjustments people make to create, maintain, or decrease social distance in interaction
- refers to strategies to adapt one's communication behaviors to become more similar to one's interaction partner (matching speech rate, adopting similar slang terms)
- refers to strategies to accentuate verbal and nonverbal differences between speakers (emphasizing a regional accent, using technical jargon)
- involves patronizing or demeaning communication that moves beyond convergence (speaking loudly to an older adult, using baby talk with a romantic partner)
- Accommodation is often used to signal liking and build rapport, while nonaccommodation can create distance or indicate dislike
- Perceptions of a speaker's motives for accommodating or not accommodating play a key role in how the behavior is interpreted
Symbolic Interaction Theory
Symbolic Interactionism
- Developed by and in the early 20th century
- Views the self and social reality as constructed through interaction
- Emphasizes the symbolic meaning people develop and rely on in the process of social interaction
- Asserts that people act toward things based on the meaning those things have for them
- These meanings are derived from social interaction and modified through interpretation
- Focuses on the small-scale, face-to-face interactions that make up everyday life
- Assumes that society is created and maintained through repeated interactions among individuals
- Suggests that the self is a social product, developed through interactions with others and shaped by others' perceptions and expectations
- The refers to the idea that people see themselves as they believe others see them
- is the process of mentally assuming the perspective of another, which allows for effective communication and coordination of behavior
- Identities are the names we call ourselves and others based on the meanings attached to the self (student, friend, daughter)
- Interaction is guided by the definition of the situation, or how people understand the social context and norms governing behavior in that context
Key Terms to Review (33)
Autonomy-connection: Autonomy-connection refers to the dynamic balance between an individual’s desire for independence and their need for closeness in relationships. This concept emphasizes that while people want to maintain their individuality and freedom, they also seek meaningful connections with others. The interplay of these two needs can shape communication patterns, influence relationship satisfaction, and determine how individuals navigate intimacy and personal space.
Barbara Montgomery: Barbara Montgomery is a notable figure in the field of communication studies, particularly recognized for her contributions to interpersonal communication theories. Her work focuses on understanding the nuances of human interaction, emphasizing the role of social context and relational dynamics in shaping communication behaviors. Montgomery's insights have helped to bridge the gap between theoretical frameworks and practical applications in everyday communication scenarios.
Behavioral uncertainty: Behavioral uncertainty refers to the lack of predictability in how individuals will act or respond in interpersonal interactions. This uncertainty can stem from unfamiliarity with the other person's behaviors, cultural differences, or unclear communication cues. As a result, it can create tension or anxiety during interactions, influencing how people communicate and form relationships.
Charles Berger: Charles Berger is a notable figure in the field of communication studies, primarily recognized for his work on interpersonal communication theories. He has significantly contributed to understanding how communication processes affect relationships and social interactions, emphasizing the role of uncertainty in communication. His theoretical frameworks help explain how individuals manage their relationships through communication, particularly in situations where they seek to reduce uncertainty about others.
Charles Cooley: Charles Cooley was an American sociologist best known for developing the concept of the 'looking-glass self', which explains how individuals form their self-concept based on how they believe others perceive them. This idea connects deeply to interpersonal communication theories by emphasizing the social nature of self-identity and the role that interaction plays in shaping our perceptions of ourselves and others.
Cognitive uncertainty: Cognitive uncertainty refers to the lack of knowledge or information about a person or situation, which can lead to confusion and discomfort in interpersonal interactions. This uncertainty often arises during initial encounters where individuals may be unsure about each other’s intentions, beliefs, or behaviors, impacting their communication and relationship-building efforts. Reducing cognitive uncertainty is essential for developing understanding and trust between individuals.
Communication accommodation theory: Communication accommodation theory explains how individuals adjust their communication styles to match those of their conversation partners. This theory highlights the importance of adapting both verbal and nonverbal cues to enhance understanding and foster relationships. It plays a critical role in improving communication skills, bridging cultural gaps, and understanding interpersonal dynamics in various contexts.
Comparison level: Comparison level refers to the standard of what individuals consider acceptable or desirable in a relationship based on their past experiences and expectations. This concept plays a crucial role in assessing the quality of current relationships, as people evaluate their satisfaction by comparing it to their perceived norms and previous encounters. A higher comparison level can lead to greater dissatisfaction in a current relationship if it does not meet those expectations.
Comparison level for alternatives: The comparison level for alternatives is a concept in interpersonal communication that refers to the standard by which individuals evaluate the potential outcomes of their relationships based on available options. This includes assessing the quality and benefits of alternative relationships compared to one's current situation. It influences decision-making about whether to stay in a relationship or seek new ones, impacting satisfaction and stability.
Convergence: Convergence refers to the process where different forms of communication, technologies, and media come together to create new forms of interactions and experiences. This blending enhances how people connect and share information, often leading to more dynamic interpersonal communication as individuals adapt to multiple platforms and channels.
Dalmas Taylor: Dalmas Taylor is a prominent figure in the field of interpersonal communication, recognized for his contributions to understanding how individuals interact and form relationships. His work emphasizes the importance of context and the dynamics of communication in shaping personal connections, highlighting factors such as perception, culture, and social influences that play a critical role in interpersonal exchanges.
Divergence: Divergence refers to the process through which individuals or groups develop distinct beliefs, values, or behaviors as a result of their interactions. It highlights how communication can lead to differences rather than similarities, especially when people come from varied backgrounds or perspectives. Understanding divergence is crucial as it helps explain how interpersonal relationships can evolve over time, sometimes resulting in conflict or misunderstanding due to differing viewpoints.
Expectancy violations theory: Expectancy violations theory is a communication theory that explores how individuals respond to unexpected behavior from others, especially in interpersonal interactions. This theory highlights the importance of personal space and social norms, positing that when someone violates these expectations, it can lead to positive or negative perceptions of the violator based on factors such as relationship closeness and context. The theory helps explain how people navigate personal interactions and the implications of violating established social expectations.
George Herbert Mead: George Herbert Mead was a sociologist and philosopher whose work laid the foundation for social psychology and the study of self and identity through social interaction. He is best known for his concepts of the 'self' and 'symbolic interactionism,' which emphasize how individuals develop their sense of self through communication and interactions with others.
Howard Giles: Howard Giles is a renowned communication scholar best known for his work in interpersonal communication and social psychology, particularly regarding language and identity. His research emphasizes how individuals adjust their communication styles to others, influencing interpersonal relationships and social dynamics.
Irwin Altman: Irwin Altman is a prominent psychologist known for his contributions to the field of interpersonal communication and social psychology. He is best recognized for developing the Social Penetration Theory, which explains how relational closeness develops through self-disclosure and shared experiences. This theory emphasizes that relationships progress from superficial levels of communication to deeper, more intimate exchanges as individuals share more personal information over time.
Judee K. Burgoon: Judee K. Burgoon is a prominent communication scholar known for her contributions to interpersonal communication theories, particularly in the areas of nonverbal communication and expectancy violations theory. Her research emphasizes how individuals interpret messages and behaviors in social interactions, revealing the complexities of communication that influence relationships and understanding between people.
Leslie Baxter: Leslie Baxter is a prominent communication scholar known for her contributions to relational communication theories, particularly in the context of dialectical theory. Her work emphasizes the dynamic and often contradictory nature of personal relationships, highlighting how individuals navigate tensions between opposing forces such as connection and autonomy. Baxter's ideas have helped to deepen the understanding of how people manage their relationships through negotiation and communication strategies.
Looking-glass self: The looking-glass self is a concept that describes how individuals develop their self-concept and self-identity based on their perceptions of how others view them. It emphasizes the idea that our self-image is shaped through social interactions, particularly by imagining how we appear to others, interpreting their reactions, and developing feelings about ourselves based on those interpretations. This process connects deeply with how we perceive ourselves in communication settings and influences interpersonal relationships.
Novelty-predictability: Novelty-predictability refers to the balance between the new and familiar elements in interpersonal communication. It highlights how people are drawn to novel experiences or information while also seeking the comfort of predictability in their interactions. This balance is crucial in maintaining engagement in relationships, where too much predictability can lead to boredom, while excessive novelty can create uncertainty and anxiety.
Openness-closedness: Openness-closedness is a dialectical tension in interpersonal communication that refers to the balance between sharing personal information and maintaining privacy. This concept highlights the dynamic nature of relationships, where individuals navigate between being open about their thoughts and feelings while also keeping certain aspects of themselves hidden, fostering both intimacy and boundaries.
Overaccommodation: Overaccommodation refers to the communication strategy where an individual adjusts their communication style to the point that it becomes excessive or inappropriate for the context or the recipient. This can lead to misunderstandings and feelings of being patronized or belittled, especially in interpersonal relationships where sensitivity to others' needs is crucial.
Predictive uncertainty: Predictive uncertainty refers to the lack of confidence in anticipating the outcomes of interpersonal communication based on previous interactions and available information. This concept highlights how unpredictability in relationships can create anxiety and affect communication patterns, ultimately shaping the way individuals engage with one another.
Relational Dialectics Theory: Relational Dialectics Theory is a communication theory that explores the dynamic and contradictory nature of personal relationships. It emphasizes that relationships are not static but are constantly evolving through tensions between opposing forces, such as connection versus autonomy or predictability versus novelty. This theory helps to understand how individuals navigate these competing desires in their interactions, impacting the overall communication patterns within various types of relationships.
Richard Calabrese: Richard Calabrese is a significant figure in the field of communication studies, known primarily for his work on interpersonal communication theories. His contributions focus on how individuals relate to one another and the dynamics of interaction within relationships, emphasizing the importance of context, identity, and the processes of communication in shaping human connections.
Role-taking: Role-taking is the process of understanding and adopting the perspectives, behaviors, and emotions of others in social interactions. This concept is essential for effective interpersonal communication as it enables individuals to empathize with others, facilitating smoother exchanges and reducing misunderstandings. By engaging in role-taking, people can adjust their communication styles to better align with those they interact with, leading to more meaningful connections and improved relational dynamics.
Self-disclosure: Self-disclosure is the process of revealing personal information about oneself to others, which plays a critical role in building and maintaining interpersonal relationships. It allows individuals to connect on a deeper level, fostering trust and intimacy, while also influencing how relationships evolve over time. The degree and appropriateness of self-disclosure can impact relationship dynamics and communication effectiveness.
Social exchange theory: Social exchange theory is a social psychological and sociological perspective that views human relationships as the result of an exchange process, where individuals seek to maximize benefits and minimize costs in their interactions. This theory suggests that people evaluate their relationships based on perceived rewards, costs, and the value of alternatives, leading to decisions about whether to continue, modify, or end a relationship. The dynamics of this exchange can influence interpersonal communication and relational development significantly.
Social Penetration Theory: Social Penetration Theory explains how relationships develop through the gradual increase of self-disclosure and intimacy between individuals. It posits that as people communicate more openly and share personal information, they move from superficial interactions to deeper, more meaningful connections, often represented as a multi-layered onion, where the outer layers are less intimate and the deeper layers reveal core values and beliefs.
Symbolic interaction theory: Symbolic interaction theory is a sociological framework that focuses on how individuals create and interpret meanings through social interactions, using symbols such as language and gestures. This theory emphasizes that human behavior is influenced by the meanings that people assign to objects, events, and behaviors, shaped through communication and social experiences.
Symbolic interactionism: Symbolic interactionism is a sociological perspective that focuses on the meanings individuals derive from social interactions and the symbols used in communication. This theory emphasizes how people create, interpret, and share meanings through their interactions, highlighting the role of language, gestures, and symbols in shaping human behavior and societal norms. It's essential for understanding how personal identities and social realities are constructed through communication.
Uncertainty Reduction: Uncertainty reduction refers to the process through which individuals seek to minimize uncertainty about each other in interpersonal communication. This process is crucial in the early stages of relationships as it helps people predict how others will behave, fostering trust and connection. By reducing uncertainty, individuals can navigate social situations more effectively and build stronger interpersonal bonds.
Uncertainty Reduction Theory: Uncertainty Reduction Theory explains how individuals communicate to reduce uncertainty about each other in initial interactions. This theory is crucial for understanding interpersonal relationships, as it highlights the strategies people use to gather information, establish connections, and build trust when meeting someone new.