4.2 Fortified settlements
8 min read•august 21, 2024
Fortified settlements in Southeast Asia evolved as complex defensive structures, reflecting societal advancements and regional challenges. These settlements played crucial roles in shaping political landscapes and cultural development across the region.
Understanding different types of fortified settlements provides insights into ancient Southeast Asian urban planning and military strategies. From hillforts and citadels to moated sites and walled cities, these structures showcase the ingenuity of ancient builders and the importance of in early societies.
Types of fortified settlements
- Fortified settlements in Southeast Asia evolved as complex defensive structures reflecting societal advancements and regional challenges
- These settlements played crucial roles in shaping political landscapes and cultural development across the region
- Understanding different types of fortified settlements provides insights into ancient Southeast Asian urban planning and military strategies
Hillforts and citadels
Top images from around the web for Hillforts and citadels
2009-09-03 09-07 Siem Reap 028 Phnom Bakheng | Allie_Caulfield | Flickr View original
Is this image relevant?
Phnom Bakheng | Looking back towards the entryway, from the … | Flickr View original
Is this image relevant?
Phnom Bakheng | Phnom Bakheng | Jason Eppink | Flickr View original
Is this image relevant?
2009-09-03 09-07 Siem Reap 028 Phnom Bakheng | Allie_Caulfield | Flickr View original
Is this image relevant?
Phnom Bakheng | Looking back towards the entryway, from the … | Flickr View original
Is this image relevant?
1 of 3
Top images from around the web for Hillforts and citadels
2009-09-03 09-07 Siem Reap 028 Phnom Bakheng | Allie_Caulfield | Flickr View original
Is this image relevant?
Phnom Bakheng | Looking back towards the entryway, from the … | Flickr View original
Is this image relevant?
Phnom Bakheng | Phnom Bakheng | Jason Eppink | Flickr View original
Is this image relevant?
2009-09-03 09-07 Siem Reap 028 Phnom Bakheng | Allie_Caulfield | Flickr View original
Is this image relevant?
Phnom Bakheng | Looking back towards the entryway, from the … | Flickr View original
Is this image relevant?
1 of 3
- Elevated defensive structures built on natural or artificial hills
- Utilized topography for strategic advantage and improved visibility
- Often featured multiple layers of fortifications (walls, ditches, ramparts)
- Served as refuges for local populations during times of conflict
- Examples include in Cambodia and in Indonesia
Moated sites
- Settlements surrounded by artificial or natural water-filled ditches
- Moats served dual purposes of defense and water management
- Often circular or rectangular in shape, with varying depths and widths
- Provided protection against invaders and wild animals
- Notable examples include in Thailand and in Vietnam
Walled cities
- Large-scale urban centers enclosed by massive defensive walls
- Walls constructed using a variety of materials (stone, brick, earth)
- Featured multiple gates for controlled access and trade
- Incorporated complex internal layouts with distinct zones for different functions
- in Cambodia represents a prime example of a walled city in Southeast Asia
Construction techniques
Earthworks and ramparts
- Involved the manipulation of soil and natural terrain to create defensive barriers
- Techniques included digging, mounding, and compacting earth
- Often reinforced with wooden structures or stone facings for added stability
- Ramparts could reach significant heights, providing elevated positions for defenders
- Examples include the of in Vietnam
Stone fortifications
- Utilized locally available stone materials for construction
- Techniques ranged from dry stone walling to mortared masonry
- Often featured interlocking stone blocks for increased strength
- Incorporated defensive features like crenellations and arrow loops
- The temple complex in Cambodia showcases impressive stone fortifications
Wooden palisades
- Consisted of closely spaced wooden stakes or logs forming a defensive barrier
- Often used in combination with earthworks or as temporary fortifications
- Provided a quick and relatively easy-to-construct defensive solution
- Could be reinforced with additional features like watchtowers or fighting platforms
- Evidence of found at sites like Ban Non Wat in Thailand
Functions and purposes
Defense and protection
- Primary function involved safeguarding inhabitants from external threats
- Fortifications designed to withstand sieges and deter potential attackers
- Incorporated multiple layers of defense (walls, moats, gates) for enhanced security
- Served as refuges for surrounding populations during times of conflict
- Examples include the defensive walls of Ayutthaya in Thailand
Political centers
- Fortified settlements often served as seats of power for ruling elites
- Contained administrative buildings, palaces, and religious structures
- Symbolized the authority and prestige of the ruling class
- Facilitated centralized control over surrounding territories
- The citadel of in Vietnam exemplifies a fortified political center
Trade and economic hubs
- Many fortified settlements developed into important commercial centers
- Controlled access points for and river systems
- Featured , storage facilities, and artisan workshops
- Attracted merchants and fostered economic growth in the region
- in Malaysia functioned as a significant fortified trade hub
Notable examples
Angkor Thom in Cambodia
- Massive walled city built in the late 12th century by King Jayavarman VII
- Covered an area of approximately 9 square kilometers
- Featured a complex system of moats, walls, and gates
- Contained numerous temples, including the famous Bayon at its center
- Served as the capital of the Khmer Empire during its zenith
Co Loa in Vietnam
- Ancient citadel located near present-day Hanoi
- Constructed in the 3rd century BCE during the Au Lac period
- Featured a unique spiral-shaped layout with multiple ramparts and moats
- Covered an area of approximately 600 hectares at its peak
- Played a significant role in early Vietnamese history and mythology
Kedah Tua in Malaysia
- Ancient fortified settlement in the Bujang Valley
- Flourished as an important entrepôt from the 5th to 14th centuries CE
- Featured a combination of earthworks, stone structures, and wooden fortifications
- Controlled trade routes between the Indian Ocean and the South China Sea
- Excavations have revealed evidence of Hindu-Buddhist influences and international trade
Chronological development
Neolithic fortified villages
- Emerged during the transition to sedentary agricultural societies
- Simple defensive structures using earthworks and wooden palisades
- Often located on elevated ground or near water sources for natural protection
- Primarily focused on protecting food stores and livestock
- Examples include early settlements in the Red River Delta of Vietnam
Iron Age defensive structures
- Coincided with advancements in metalworking and warfare technologies
- Saw the development of more complex fortification systems
- Incorporated stone and brick in addition to earth and wood
- Reflected increasing social complexity and resource competition
- Sites like Non Muang Kao in Thailand showcase fortifications
Classical period urban fortifications
- Characterized by large-scale, sophisticated defensive systems
- Integrated multiple layers of defense (walls, moats, citadels)
- Reflected the emergence of centralized states and empires
- Often incorporated symbolic and aesthetic elements in addition to defensive functions
- Thom represents the pinnacle of urban fortifications in Southeast Asia
Social implications
Population concentration
- Fortified settlements encouraged the aggregation of people within defined areas
- Led to increased population densities and urban development
- Facilitated the sharing of resources and specialized labor
- Promoted cultural exchange and the spread of ideas
- Resulted in the growth of urban centers like in Myanmar
Social stratification
- Fortified settlements often reinforced existing social hierarchies
- Elites typically occupied central or elevated areas within the fortifications
- Different social classes were often segregated into distinct zones
- Access to certain areas within the settlement might be restricted based on status
- The layout of Angkor Thom reflects clear social stratification in its urban planning
Labor organization
- Construction and maintenance of fortifications required coordinated effort
- Mobilized large workforces for building and repairing defensive structures
- Led to the development of specialized roles (engineers, masons, laborers)
- Reflected the ability of rulers to command significant human resources
- The scale of fortifications at sites like Angkor demonstrates sophisticated labor organization
Defensive features
Moats and water management
- Artificial or natural water-filled ditches surrounding settlements
- Served both defensive and practical purposes (irrigation, flood control)
- Often integrated with broader hydraulic systems in the landscape
- Could be quite extensive, with multiple concentric moats in some cases
- The moats of Angkor Thom span 100 meters in width and 12 kilometers in length
Gateways and entrance complexes
- Controlled access points into fortified settlements
- Often elaborately designed with symbolic and defensive elements
- Could include features like drawbridges, portcullises, and guard towers
- Sometimes aligned with astronomical or cosmological principles
- The five monumental gates of Angkor Thom exemplify complex entrance architecture
Watchtowers and bastions
- Elevated structures providing vantage points for surveillance and defense
- Typically positioned at strategic locations along walls or at corners
- Allowed defenders to spot approaching threats from a distance
- Often served as platforms for archers or other defensive weaponry
- The Prasat Suor Prat towers at Angkor Thom may have functioned as watchtowers
Archaeological evidence
Structural remains
- Physical remnants of walls, foundations, and other defensive features
- Provide insights into construction techniques and materials used
- Can reveal multiple phases of construction and modification over time
- Often the most visible evidence of ancient fortified settlements
- Examples include the well-preserved walls of Angkor Thom and Co Loa
Artifact distributions
- Patterns of artifact concentrations within and around fortified areas
- Can indicate functional zones, activity areas, and social stratification
- Military artifacts (weapons, armor) provide evidence of defensive functions
- Trade goods suggest economic roles of fortified settlements
- Ceramic distributions at Kedah Tua reveal patterns of trade and social organization
Geophysical surveys
- Non-invasive techniques to detect subsurface features without
- Methods include ground-penetrating radar, magnetometry, and resistivity surveys
- Reveal hidden structures, buried walls, and other archaeological features
- Particularly useful for mapping large-scale fortification systems
- Geophysical surveys at Angkor have revealed extensive hydraulic systems associated with fortifications
Regional variations
Mainland vs island Southeast Asia
- Mainland fortifications often larger in scale due to available land and resources
- Island fortifications more frequently incorporated natural coastal defenses
- Mainland sites show greater influence from Indian and Chinese traditions
- Island fortifications reflect maritime trade influences and local adaptations
- Comparison of Angkor Thom (mainland) with Srivijaya sites (island) illustrates these differences
Coastal vs inland fortifications
- Coastal fortifications often designed to protect harbors and control maritime trade
- Inland fortifications more focused on controlling land-based routes and resources
- Coastal sites show greater evidence of international trade connections
- Inland fortifications often integrated with broader landscape management systems
- Melaka (coastal) and Ayutthaya (inland) demonstrate contrasting fortification strategies
Decline and abandonment
Changing warfare tactics
- Introduction of gunpowder weapons rendered some traditional fortifications obsolete
- Shift towards mobile warfare strategies in some regions
- Adaptation of fortification designs to counter new threats
- Some sites modified existing fortifications, while others were abandoned
- The fortifications of Ayutthaya were modified in response to Portuguese artillery
Shifts in political power
- Collapse of centralized states led to abandonment of some fortified capitals
- Rise of new political centers resulted in the construction of new fortifications
- Some fortified sites repurposed or occupied by different political entities
- Changing trade routes impacted the strategic importance of certain fortified settlements
- The decline of Angkor led to the abandonment of its extensive fortification system
Environmental factors
- Climate change and environmental degradation affected the sustainability of some fortified settlements
- Water management issues led to the abandonment of certain hydraulic-based fortifications
- Natural disasters (earthquakes, floods) damaged or destroyed some fortified structures
- Deforestation and resource depletion impacted the ability to maintain large-scale fortifications
- Environmental stress may have contributed to the decline of water-dependent fortified sites like Angkor
Modern archaeological approaches
Remote sensing techniques
- Utilization of satellite imagery and LiDAR technology to map large-scale fortification systems
- Allows for the discovery of previously unknown sites and features
- Provides comprehensive views of fortified settlements in their landscape context
- Particularly useful in densely forested or inaccessible areas
- LiDAR surveys have revealed extensive fortification networks around Angkor
Excavation strategies
- Targeted excavations to investigate specific elements of fortification systems
- Use of stratigraphic analysis to understand construction phases and modifications
- Careful documentation of construction techniques and materials
- Integration of scientific dating methods to establish chronologies
- Excavations at Co Loa have revealed multiple phases of fortification construction
Interdisciplinary studies
- Collaboration between archaeologists, historians, geologists, and other specialists
- Integration of textual sources, epigraphy, and archaeological evidence
- Use of paleoenvironmental data to understand the context of fortified settlements
- Application of materials science techniques to analyze construction materials
- Studies at Kedah Tua combine archaeological, historical, and geological approaches to understand its development
Key Terms to Review (30)
Administration: Administration refers to the systematic organization and management of resources, people, and processes within a society or settlement. It encompasses the decision-making, planning, and execution of policies to maintain order and facilitate the functioning of a community, especially in contexts like fortified settlements where strategic governance is essential for defense and social cohesion.
Angkor: Angkor was the capital city of the Khmer Empire from the 9th to the 15th century, known for its grand temples, sophisticated water management systems, and urban planning. This sprawling metropolis reflects the power and influence of the Khmer civilization and serves as a critical site for understanding the region's historical development, trade networks, and cultural practices.
Angkor Thom: Angkor Thom is a significant historical city and the last capital of the Khmer Empire, established in the late 12th century under King Jayavarman VII. This fortified settlement is notable for its impressive architecture, including monumental gates, a royal palace, and temples that exemplify the grandeur of Khmer civilization. Its strategic design and political significance reflect its role as a powerful administrative and political center during the height of the Khmer Empire.
Bagan: Bagan is an ancient city located in Myanmar, known for its extensive archaeological site that features thousands of Buddhist temples, pagodas, and stupas dating back to the 9th to 13th centuries. This historic site reflects significant advancements in fortified settlements, urban planning, and water management techniques, showcasing the rich cultural heritage of the region and its influence on the development of early Southeast Asian civilizations.
Borobudur: Borobudur is a massive 9th-century Mahayana Buddhist temple located in Central Java, Indonesia, and is renowned for its intricate design and architectural sophistication. This UNESCO World Heritage Site serves as a key symbol of Buddhist devotion and art in Southeast Asia, reflecting the region's historical connections with Indian ocean trade and the syncretic nature of its religious practices.
Bukit Seguntang: Bukit Seguntang is a significant archaeological site located in present-day Sumatra, Indonesia, known for its ancient fortified settlement. This site is important as it provides insights into the political and cultural dynamics of early Malay kingdoms, showcasing defensive structures and indicating the strategic importance of location in controlling trade routes and regional power.
Charles Higham: Charles Higham is a prominent archaeologist known for his extensive research on the prehistory and early history of Southeast Asia, particularly focusing on the origins of agriculture and social complexities in the region. His work has significantly shaped our understanding of early agricultural societies, Neolithic settlements, and their development into more complex social structures.
Chinese Trade: Chinese trade refers to the extensive exchange of goods, culture, and ideas that occurred between China and other regions, particularly Southeast Asia, throughout history. This trade was pivotal in shaping the economic and cultural landscapes of the regions involved, leading to the establishment of various trading networks and influencing local practices, including the development of fortified settlements and unique pottery traditions.
Classical Period: The Classical Period refers to a significant era in history characterized by the development of complex societies, urban centers, and advancements in art, architecture, and governance, typically spanning from around 500 BCE to 500 CE in various regions. This period saw the rise of powerful civilizations, including those in Southeast Asia, that established fortified settlements as a means of defense and social organization, reflecting their cultural and political complexity.
Co Loa: Co Loa is an ancient fortified settlement in Vietnam, known for its complex defense structures and historical significance. This site dates back to the 3rd century BCE and was the capital of the early Vietnamese state, characterized by its unique earthen ramparts and layout that reflect advanced urban planning. Its strategic location and fortifications were essential for protection against invasions and demonstrate the importance of fortified settlements in the region's history.
Defense: Defense refers to the strategies and structures employed to protect a community or settlement from external threats and attacks. In the context of fortified settlements, defense mechanisms include walls, moats, and other military fortifications designed to deter or withstand invasions. Effective defense systems not only safeguard inhabitants but also signify the social and political organization within a society, illustrating how communities prioritize security in their spatial planning.
Defensive strategies: Defensive strategies refer to the methods and tactics employed by communities or civilizations to protect themselves from external threats, particularly during times of conflict. These strategies are crucial in establishing fortified settlements, which are designed to enhance security against invasions or attacks by hostile forces. Key elements include physical barriers like walls and ditches, as well as strategic location choices that leverage natural defenses.
Earthen Walls: Earthen walls are fortifications made from compacted earth, often used in the construction of fortified settlements. These structures were designed to provide protection against invasions and attacks, utilizing locally available materials for durability and effectiveness. Their construction reflects the ingenuity of ancient societies in adapting to their environment while prioritizing defense.
Excavation: Excavation is the systematic process of digging and recording the physical remains of past human activities, allowing archaeologists to uncover artifacts, structures, and ecofacts. This technique is crucial for understanding historical contexts, cultural practices, and the evolution of societies over time, revealing insights into burial customs, settlement patterns, and trade networks.
Hierarchical structure: A hierarchical structure is an organizational framework that arranges individuals or groups in levels of authority and responsibility, typically resembling a pyramid where higher levels have more power and influence. In fortified settlements, this structure often reflects social stratification and military organization, where leaders or elites are positioned at the top and commoners or lower classes at the bottom. This setup can dictate resource distribution, defense strategies, and social interactions within the settlement.
Indian Influence: Indian influence refers to the cultural, religious, and economic impact that Indian civilization had on Southeast Asia, particularly through trade routes and the spread of Hinduism and Buddhism. This influence shaped various aspects of life in the region, including art, architecture, social structures, and belief systems, reflecting a complex interplay between local traditions and imported ideas.
Iron Age: The Iron Age is a historical period that follows the Bronze Age, characterized by the widespread use of iron tools and weapons. This era marks significant technological advancements and societal changes, impacting various aspects such as trade, agriculture, and settlement patterns across different regions.
Kedah tua: Kedah Tua refers to an ancient kingdom located in the northern region of the Malay Peninsula, which is now part of modern-day Malaysia. This significant historical site is associated with early trade networks, fortified settlements, and the spread of Hindu-Buddhist culture. Its archaeological findings provide insights into the socio-economic structures and maritime activities of Southeast Asia during its formative years.
Marketplaces: Marketplaces are physical or virtual spaces where goods and services are exchanged between buyers and sellers. They serve as vital hubs for trade and economic interaction, often influencing local economies and social structures. In ancient contexts, marketplaces were integral to trade networks and fortified settlements, facilitating the movement of commodities and fostering community connections.
My Son: My Son is an ancient Hindu temple complex located in Vietnam, specifically in the Quang Nam Province. It was built by the Champa civilization between the 4th and 14th centuries, serving as a religious center dedicated to the worship of Shiva and other Hindu deities. The site is significant for its stunning architecture and intricate stone carvings, reflecting the cultural influences of Indian civilization in Southeast Asia.
Neolithic: The Neolithic period, also known as the New Stone Age, marks a significant turning point in human history characterized by the development of agriculture, the domestication of plants and animals, and the establishment of permanent settlements. This era facilitated the transition from nomadic hunter-gatherer societies to settled agricultural communities, leading to profound changes in social organization, technology, and human-environment interactions.
Noen u-loke: Noen u-loke refers to a type of fortified settlement found in Southeast Asia, characterized by its strategic placement and defensive architecture. These settlements often served as centers for trade and community, demonstrating the importance of security in urban planning during historical periods. Their design typically included walls, moats, and watchtowers, reflecting the need for protection against external threats.
Phnom Bakheng: Phnom Bakheng is a temple located in the Angkor region of Cambodia, originally constructed in the late 9th century during the reign of King Yasovarman I. It served as a prominent religious center and has historical significance as a fortified settlement, reflecting both the architectural style and the political power of the era, while also functioning as an administrative and political center overseeing the early Khmer Empire.
Preah Vihear: Preah Vihear is a Hindu temple located on a 525-meter cliff in the Dângrêk Mountains of Cambodia, dedicated to the god Shiva. This temple is significant for its unique architectural design and its historical importance, serving as a symbol of Khmer civilization and as a fortified settlement that reflects the strategic military and religious significance of the region during its time of use.
Remote Sensing: Remote sensing refers to the acquisition of information about an object or phenomenon without making physical contact, often through satellite or aerial imagery. This technology allows archaeologists to detect and analyze features on the Earth's surface, such as ancient structures, landscapes, and settlements, without excavation.
Stone Ramparts: Stone ramparts are fortified walls constructed from stone that serve as a defensive structure for settlements. These robust barriers are designed to protect against attacks and invasions, often found in ancient fortified settlements where security was a priority. The use of stone as a building material signifies a level of permanence and strength, crucial for the protection of the inhabitants and their resources.
Thang Long: Thang Long, also known as Hanoi, is a historical city in Vietnam that served as the political and cultural center for several dynasties, particularly during the Ly and Tran dynasties from the 11th to the 14th centuries. The city was designed as a fortified settlement, featuring a strategic layout and strong defensive structures that enhanced its role in regional power dynamics and military organization.
Trade routes: Trade routes are established paths or networks that facilitate the exchange of goods, ideas, and cultural practices between different regions. They play a crucial role in economic interactions and influence social structures, political relationships, and religious practices across the areas they connect. These routes often intersect at fortified settlements, which serve as hubs for trade and protection, while also promoting syncretic religious practices through the mingling of cultures and beliefs. Additionally, they contribute to the establishment of administrative and political centers that manage trade activities and maintain order in these dynamic exchanges.
Victor Lieberman: Victor Lieberman is a prominent historian known for his work on the historical dynamics of Southeast Asia, particularly regarding the relationships between early state formation and the processes of social complexity. His theories often connect the development of fortified settlements with evolving social hierarchies, early stratification, and funerary customs in pre-colonial societies, emphasizing how these factors intertwine to shape cultural and political landscapes.
Wooden palisades: Wooden palisades are tall, strong fences made of wooden stakes or logs that are driven into the ground, typically used to fortify settlements. These structures served as defensive barriers to protect communities from external threats, such as invasions or attacks, and were essential in the establishment of fortified settlements throughout history.