🏺Archaeology of Southeast Asia Unit 1 – Prehistoric Southeast Asia

Key Concepts and Terminology

• Prehistory refers to the period before written records, studied through archaeological evidence
• Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic periods represent different stages of technological and cultural development
• Hoabinhian is a distinctive Southeast Asian stone tool industry characterized by flaked, cobble artifacts
• Austronesian languages are a family of languages widely dispersed throughout Southeast Asia and the Pacific
• Domestication is the process of adapting plants and animals for human use through selective breeding
• Foraging societies relied on hunting, gathering, and fishing for subsistence
• Neolithization describes the transition from foraging to farming and the associated cultural changes
• Megaliths are large stone structures (menhirs, dolmens) often associated with ritual or burial practices

Geographical Context and Timeline

• Southeast Asia includes modern-day countries of Indonesia, Philippines, Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Myanmar, Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, and Timor-Leste
• The region is characterized by diverse landscapes, including tropical rainforests, mountains, and extensive coastlines
• The Paleolithic period in Southeast Asia dates back to at least 1 million years ago, marked by early human migration and stone tool use
• The Hoabinhian culture (43,000-4,000 BP) represents a distinct Mesolithic adaptation to the tropical environment
• Neolithic period began around 4,000 BP, characterized by the emergence of agriculture, pottery, and sedentary settlements
• Bronze Age in Southeast Asia (around 2,000 BP) saw the development of metal technologies and increasing social complexity
• Iron Age (beginning around 500 BCE) marked the widespread adoption of iron tools and weapons, as well as the emergence of early states and trade networks

Early Human Migration to Southeast Asia

• Homo erectus is the earliest known human species to inhabit Southeast Asia, with fossils dating back to around 1.6 million years ago (Java Man)
• Multiple migration waves of modern humans (Homo sapiens) from Africa and East Asia contributed to the genetic diversity of the region
• Niah Cave in Sarawak, Malaysia, provides evidence of human occupation dating back to around 40,000 years ago
• Sea-level changes during the Pleistocene created land bridges (Sundaland, Sahul) that facilitated human and animal dispersals
  • Sundaland connected the islands of Sumatra, Java, and Borneo to mainland Southeast Asia
  • Sahul linked Australia and New Guinea, enabling early human migration to these regions
• Linguistic evidence suggests the spread of Austronesian-speaking peoples from Taiwan to the Philippines, Indonesia, and the Pacific around 4,000 BP

Major Archaeological Sites and Discoveries

• Sangiran in Java, Indonesia, is a key site for understanding early human evolution, with numerous Homo erectus fossils
• Tam Pa Ling in Laos yielded a modern human skull dating back to around 63,000 years ago, one of the oldest in Southeast Asia
• Tabon Cave in the Philippines contains evidence of human occupation spanning from the Late Pleistocene to the Neolithic
• Ban Chiang in northeast Thailand is a significant Neolithic and Bronze Age site, known for its distinctive red-painted pottery
• Khok Phanom Di in central Thailand provides insights into early rice cultivation and the emergence of social complexity
• Dong Son culture sites in northern Vietnam showcase advanced bronze-working techniques and elaborate burial practices
• Angkor Borei in Cambodia is an early urban center with evidence of extensive trade networks and cultural exchange

Stone Tool Technologies

• Lower Paleolithic tools in Southeast Asia include simple flakes, choppers, and hand axes made from river cobbles
• Hoabinhian industry is characterized by unifacially flaked cobble tools, often with a rounded edge suitable for chopping and grinding
  • Hoabinhian tools were adapted to the processing of forest resources, such as nuts, tubers, and bamboo
  • The use of Hoabinhian tools persisted alongside later technologies in some regions
• Neolithic stone tools include ground and polished adzes, axes, and chisels, reflecting the increased importance of woodworking and forest clearance
• Projectile points, such as arrowheads and spear tips, provide evidence for hunting practices and the development of bow-and-arrow technology
• Stone tool analysis offers insights into raw material procurement, production techniques, and the organization of prehistoric societies

Prehistoric Art and Cultural Expressions

• Rock art, including paintings and engravings, is found in numerous cave and cliff sites across Southeast Asia (Gua Tambun in Malaysia, Padalin Cave in Myanmar)
  • Common motifs include human figures, animals, geometric designs, and abstract symbols
  • Rock art provides glimpses into the worldviews, beliefs, and cultural practices of prehistoric communities
• Portable art objects, such as figurines, ornaments, and decorated pottery, showcase the artistic skills and creativity of early Southeast Asian peoples
• Dong Son bronze drums, found in Vietnam and other parts of mainland Southeast Asia, feature intricate geometric and figurative designs
• Megalithic structures, such as stone jars in Laos and menhirs in Sulawesi, Indonesia, are associated with ritual practices and ancestral veneration
• The Tabon Caves in the Philippines yielded the Manunggul Jar, a Neolithic burial jar with a ship-of-the-dead motif, providing insights into early Austronesian beliefs

Subsistence Strategies and Early Agriculture

• Foraging societies in Southeast Asia relied on a diverse range of wild resources, including plants, animals, and marine resources
  • Tropical rainforests provided a rich array of edible plants, such as sago palm, yams, and fruit trees
  • Coastal and riverine environments were important sources of fish, shellfish, and other aquatic resources
• The transition to agriculture occurred at different times and paces across the region, with evidence of plant domestication dating back to around 4,000 BP
• Rice (Oryza sativa) was a key crop in the development of agriculture in Southeast Asia, with early evidence of cultivation in the Yangtze River valley of China
  • The spread of rice agriculture to Southeast Asia likely involved the adaptation of farming practices to local environmental conditions
  • Other important crops included millet, taro, bananas, and sugarcane
• Animal domestication in Southeast Asia focused on pigs, dogs, and chickens, with water buffalo and cattle becoming important later for rice cultivation and transportation
• The adoption of agriculture led to increased sedentism, population growth, and the emergence of more complex social structures and labor organization

Emerging Social Complexity and Trade Networks

• The Neolithic period saw the development of sedentary villages and the emergence of social differentiation, as evidenced by variations in burial practices and grave goods
• The Bronze Age marked the intensification of social stratification, with the production and exchange of prestige goods (bronze drums, jewelry) reflecting emerging elites
• Early states and chiefdoms in Southeast Asia, such as Funan in the Mekong Delta and Srivijaya in Sumatra, were characterized by centralized political authority and the control of trade routes
• Long-distance trade networks, facilitated by maritime technologies and the monsoon winds, connected Southeast Asia with China, India, and beyond
  • Trade goods included spices, aromatic woods, precious metals, and forest products (resins, incense)
  • The exchange of ideas, technologies, and cultural practices accompanied the movement of goods
• The development of wet-rice agriculture, particularly in river valleys and deltas, supported population growth and the emergence of more complex political structures
• Social differentiation is evident in the construction of monumental architecture, such as the megalithic sites of Sulawesi and the early brick temples of the Mekong Delta
• The adoption of Indic religions, such as Hinduism and Buddhism, and the development of writing systems in the early centuries CE marked the transition from prehistory to the historical period in much of Southeast Asia