Glossary

10.1 Climate change impacts on cities

13 min read•august 20, 2024

Climate change poses significant risks to cities, including rising sea levels, more frequent heatwaves, and increased flooding. These impacts can affect public health, economic stability, and social equity, requiring urgent action to build urban .

Cities are particularly vulnerable due to high population density, complex infrastructure, and resource dependence. The exacerbates climate impacts, while threatens coastal areas. Adapting to these challenges is crucial for sustainable urban development.

Climate change risks for cities

  • Cities are particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change due to their high population density, complex infrastructure, and dependence on resources
  • Climate change poses significant risks to urban areas, including rising sea levels, more frequent and severe heatwaves, and increased flooding from heavy rainfall events
  • These risks can have cascading effects on public health, economic stability, and social equity in cities, requiring urgent action to build resilience and adapt to a changing climate

Urban heat island effect

  • The urban heat island effect occurs when cities experience higher temperatures than surrounding rural areas due to factors such as reduced vegetation, heat-absorbing surfaces (concrete and asphalt), and waste heat from buildings and vehicles
  • Urban heat islands can exacerbate the impacts of heatwaves, leading to increased energy demand for cooling, air quality issues, and heat-related health risks, particularly for vulnerable populations (elderly, low-income)
  • Strategies to mitigate the urban heat island effect include increasing urban greening (parks, green roofs), using cool pavements and roofs, and improving building insulation and ventilation

Sea level rise in coastal cities

  • Rising sea levels due to climate change pose a significant threat to coastal cities, which are home to a large portion of the global population and critical infrastructure
  • Sea level rise can lead to increased coastal flooding, erosion, and saltwater intrusion into groundwater aquifers, compromising the habitability and functionality of low-lying urban areas
  • Coastal cities need to develop adaptation strategies such as building sea walls, elevating infrastructure, and managed retreat from high-risk areas to reduce their vulnerability to sea level rise

Increased frequency of extreme weather

Heatwaves and droughts

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  • Climate change is expected to increase the frequency, intensity, and duration of heatwaves in cities, which can have severe impacts on public health, energy systems, and water resources
  • Prolonged heatwaves can lead to drought conditions, straining urban water supplies and increasing the risk of wildfires in nearby natural areas
  • Cities need to develop heat action plans, improve early warning systems, and provide access to cooling centers and hydration to protect residents during extreme heat events

Floods from heavy rainfall

  • More frequent and intense rainfall events due to climate change can overwhelm urban drainage systems and cause flash flooding in cities
  • Urban flooding can damage infrastructure, disrupt transportation and business operations, and pose risks to public safety and health
  • Cities can reduce their vulnerability to flooding by improving stormwater management (permeable pavements, retention basins), upgrading drainage infrastructure, and developing flood-resilient building codes

Intense hurricanes and storm surges

  • Climate change is expected to increase the intensity of hurricanes and tropical storms, which can cause severe wind damage and storm surge flooding in coastal cities
  • Storm surges can inundate low-lying areas, damage critical infrastructure, and displace large populations, as seen in recent events such as Hurricane Sandy (New York City) and Hurricane Harvey (Houston)
  • Coastal cities need to strengthen their hurricane preparedness and response plans, invest in resilient infrastructure, and consider managed retreat from high-risk areas

Climate change impacts on urban infrastructure

Water supply and treatment systems

  • Climate change can affect urban water supply through changes in precipitation patterns, reduced snowpack, and increased evaporation, leading to water scarcity and quality issues
  • Extreme weather events can damage water treatment facilities and distribution networks, disrupting access to safe drinking water and sanitation services
  • Cities need to invest in water conservation measures (efficient fixtures, leak detection), diversify their water sources (recycled water, desalination), and upgrade aging infrastructure to ensure resilient water systems

Energy generation and distribution

  • Rising temperatures and extreme weather events can strain urban energy systems, leading to increased demand for cooling, reduced efficiency of power plants, and more frequent outages
  • Cities that rely on hydropower may face reduced generation capacity during droughts, while coastal energy infrastructure is vulnerable to sea level rise and storm surge damage
  • To build energy resilience, cities can promote energy efficiency (building retrofits, smart grids), adopt renewable energy sources (solar, wind), and develop microgrids and distributed generation

Transportation networks

  • Extreme weather events can disrupt urban transportation systems, damaging roads, bridges, and transit infrastructure, and posing risks to traveler safety
  • Rising temperatures can cause pavement damage and rail track buckling, while flooding can inundate tunnels and subways, leading to costly repairs and service interruptions
  • Cities can adapt their transportation systems by using resilient materials (permeable pavements, heat-resistant asphalt), improving drainage and flood protection, and developing alternative routes and modes of transport

Waste management facilities

  • Climate change can impact urban waste management by increasing the risk of flooding and damage to landfills, transfer stations, and recycling facilities
  • Higher temperatures can accelerate waste decomposition and generate more methane emissions from landfills, contributing to climate change and air quality issues
  • Cities can improve the resilience of their waste management systems by relocating facilities away from flood-prone areas, capturing and utilizing landfill gas, and promoting waste reduction and recycling to minimize the strain on infrastructure

Public health risks in cities

  • Extreme heat events can cause a range of health impacts, from heat exhaustion and heat stroke to exacerbation of chronic conditions such as cardiovascular and respiratory diseases
  • Urban populations, particularly vulnerable groups (elderly, children, outdoor workers), are at higher risk of heat-related illnesses and mortality due to the urban heat island effect and limited access to cooling
  • Cities can protect public health during heatwaves by providing early warnings, opening cooling centers, and ensuring access to healthcare and social services for at-risk populations

Air quality and respiratory issues

  • Climate change can worsen air quality in cities by increasing the formation of ground-level ozone and particulate matter, which are linked to respiratory and cardiovascular diseases
  • Higher temperatures and more frequent wildfires can also contribute to poor air quality, exacerbating asthma and other respiratory conditions
  • To improve air quality, cities can promote clean transportation (electric vehicles, public transit), reduce industrial emissions, and expand urban green spaces that absorb pollutants

Water-borne diseases and contamination

  • Flooding and heavy rainfall events can overwhelm urban sewer systems and cause the release of untreated wastewater into waterways, increasing the risk of water-borne diseases (cholera, typhoid)
  • Rising temperatures can also promote the growth of harmful algal blooms and bacteria in water bodies, leading to contamination of drinking water sources and recreational areas
  • Cities can reduce the risk of water-borne diseases by upgrading sewer infrastructure, implementing (rain gardens, permeable pavements), and monitoring and treating contaminated water sources

Mental health and stress

  • Climate change can have significant impacts on mental health, causing stress, anxiety, and trauma related to extreme weather events, displacement, and loss of livelihoods
  • Urban populations may be particularly vulnerable to climate-related mental health impacts due to the cumulative stressors of city life, such as noise, pollution, and social isolation
  • To support mental health resilience, cities can provide access to mental health services, create community support networks, and incorporate mental health considerations into climate adaptation planning

Economic costs of climate change for cities

Property damage and insurance premiums

  • Extreme weather events and sea level rise can cause significant property damage in cities, from flooded homes and businesses to wind damage and infrastructure failures
  • As the frequency and severity of climate-related disasters increase, insurance premiums for urban properties are likely to rise, making coverage unaffordable for many residents and businesses
  • Cities can work with the insurance industry to develop risk-based pricing and incentives for climate-resilient construction and retrofitting to help manage the economic impacts of property damage

Business disruptions and productivity losses

  • Climate change can disrupt urban businesses through direct impacts (damage to facilities, inventory loss) and indirect effects (supply chain disruptions, employee absences)
  • Extreme weather events can force businesses to close temporarily, leading to lost revenues and productivity, while chronic stressors like heat waves can reduce employee performance and increase healthcare costs
  • To minimize business disruptions, cities can support the development of business continuity plans, provide resources for small businesses to adapt to climate risks, and invest in resilient infrastructure and services

Adaptation and resilience investments

  • Building urban resilience to climate change requires significant investments in adaptation measures, such as upgrading infrastructure, developing early warning systems, and implementing nature-based solutions
  • These investments can be costly for cities, particularly those with limited financial resources, but they are necessary to avoid even greater economic losses from climate impacts in the long run
  • Cities can leverage a range of financing mechanisms for adaptation, including municipal bonds, public-private partnerships, and climate funds, while also prioritizing investments that deliver co-benefits (job creation, public health improvements)

Social equity and climate justice in cities

Disproportionate impacts on vulnerable populations

  • Climate change impacts are not felt equally across urban populations, with low-income communities, communities of color, and other marginalized groups often bearing a disproportionate burden
  • These vulnerable populations may have limited resources to cope with climate stressors, such as lack of access to air conditioning during heat waves or inability to afford flood insurance
  • Cities must prioritize climate justice in their adaptation planning, ensuring that the needs and voices of vulnerable communities are central to decision-making and resource allocation

Affordable housing and displacement risks

  • Climate-related disasters and rising sea levels can lead to the displacement of urban residents, particularly those living in low-lying or flood-prone areas
  • As the costs of climate adaptation and resilience measures increase, there is a risk that affordable housing will become even more scarce in cities, exacerbating existing housing inequities
  • Cities can address these risks by incorporating climate resilience into affordable housing policies, providing assistance for home retrofits and relocation, and ensuring that new development is sited in low-risk areas

Access to green spaces and cooling centers

  • Urban green spaces, such as parks and community gardens, can provide important cooling benefits and improve air quality, but access to these amenities is often unequal across city neighborhoods
  • Similarly, cooling centers and other public facilities that offer relief during heat waves may be less accessible to low-income and minority communities
  • To promote equitable access to climate resilience resources, cities can prioritize investments in green infrastructure and cooling centers in underserved neighborhoods, and engage communities in the planning and design process

Urban climate change mitigation strategies

Greenhouse gas emissions reduction targets

  • Cities are major contributors to global greenhouse gas emissions, primarily through energy use in buildings, transportation, and industry
  • To mitigate climate change, many cities have adopted emissions reduction targets, such as becoming carbon neutral by a certain date or reducing emissions by a specific percentage compared to a baseline year
  • These targets can help drive policy and investment decisions, but they must be backed up by concrete actions and progress tracking to ensure accountability

Energy efficiency in buildings and transportation

  • Improving energy efficiency in buildings and transportation is a key strategy for reducing urban greenhouse gas emissions
  • Cities can adopt building codes that require high levels of energy efficiency for new construction and retrofits, and provide incentives for building owners to upgrade insulation, lighting, and HVAC systems
  • In the transportation sector, cities can promote energy-efficient vehicles (electric, hybrid), improve public transit and active mobility options, and reduce vehicle miles traveled through land use and pricing policies

Renewable energy adoption and incentives

  • Transitioning to renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind power, can significantly reduce a city's and improve air quality
  • Cities can lead by example by powering municipal buildings and operations with renewable energy, and can create incentives for residents and businesses to adopt renewable energy technologies (solar panels, green tariffs)
  • Policies such as community choice aggregation and streamlined permitting processes can help accelerate the adoption of renewable energy in cities

Sustainable land use and development practices

  • Land use and development patterns have a significant impact on a city's greenhouse gas emissions, as well as its vulnerability to climate impacts
  • Compact, mixed-use development can reduce emissions from transportation by enabling shorter trips and more walking, biking, and transit use, while also preserving green spaces that provide climate resilience benefits
  • Cities can promote sustainable land use through zoning policies, development incentives, and investments in transit-oriented development and infill projects

Urban climate change adaptation planning

Climate risk assessments and vulnerability mapping

  • To effectively plan for climate change adaptation, cities need to understand their specific risks and vulnerabilities
  • Climate risk assessments involve analyzing historical and projected climate data, identifying key hazards (heat waves, floods), and evaluating the potential impacts on urban systems and populations
  • Vulnerability mapping can help cities identify areas and communities that are most at risk from climate impacts, based on factors such as exposure, sensitivity, and

Green infrastructure and nature-based solutions

  • Green infrastructure and nature-based solutions can provide multiple benefits for urban climate resilience, including reducing heat island effects, managing stormwater, and providing habitat for biodiversity
  • Examples of green infrastructure include green roofs, rain gardens, permeable pavements, and urban forests, which can be integrated into buildings, streets, and public spaces
  • Cities can promote the adoption of green infrastructure through policies, incentives, and public investments, and can engage communities in the design and stewardship of these projects

Resilient building codes and design standards

  • Building codes and design standards play a critical role in ensuring that new construction and retrofits are resilient to climate impacts
  • Cities can update their building codes to require features such as flood-proofing, hurricane shutters, and passive cooling design, and can provide guidance and incentives for developers to go beyond minimum requirements
  • Resilient design standards can also be applied to infrastructure systems, such as elevating electrical equipment above flood levels or using heat-resistant materials in transportation projects

Emergency preparedness and response systems

  • As the frequency and intensity of climate-related disasters increase, cities need to have robust emergency preparedness and response systems in place
  • This includes developing emergency plans and protocols, training first responders and city staff, and establishing communication and coordination systems with other agencies and community organizations
  • Cities can also invest in early warning systems, such as flood sensors and heat wave alerts, and can conduct public education campaigns to help residents prepare for and respond to emergencies

Financing urban climate action

Public funding sources and mechanisms

  • Public funding is a key source of financing for urban climate action, including investments in infrastructure, planning, and community programs
  • Cities can leverage a range of public funding mechanisms, such as municipal bonds, tax increment financing, and special assessments, to support climate projects and initiatives
  • Federal and state funding sources, such as grants and low-interest loans, can also be accessed by cities to support climate action, particularly for larger-scale projects

Private sector investments and partnerships

  • Private sector investments and partnerships can play a significant role in financing urban climate action, particularly in areas such as renewable energy, green building, and resilient infrastructure
  • Cities can create incentives and favorable regulatory environments to attract private investment in climate projects, such as through green bonds, public-private partnerships, and risk-sharing mechanisms
  • Private companies can also be engaged as partners in climate action through initiatives such as corporate sustainability commitments, employee engagement programs, and community benefit agreements

Innovative financing tools and models

  • In addition to traditional public and private financing sources, cities can explore innovative financing tools and models to support climate action
  • These may include green banks, which provide low-cost financing for clean energy and energy efficiency projects, and resilience bonds, which link insurance premiums to investments in risk reduction measures
  • Cities can also explore models such as community ownership of renewable energy projects, which can help democratize the benefits of clean energy and build local support for climate action

Governance and policy frameworks for urban climate action

Local government leadership and coordination

  • Local governments play a critical role in leading and coordinating urban climate action, as they have direct control over many of the systems and policies that shape a city's emissions and resilience
  • Effective local government leadership requires setting clear goals and targets, allocating resources and staff capacity, and establishing accountability and reporting mechanisms
  • Coordination across city departments and with other levels of government is also essential to ensure that climate action is integrated into all aspects of urban planning and decision-making

Community engagement and participatory planning

  • Community engagement and are essential for building public support and ensuring that urban climate action reflects the needs and priorities of diverse stakeholders
  • Cities can use a range of engagement methods, such as public meetings, surveys, and online platforms, to gather input and feedback from residents, businesses, and community organizations
  • Participatory planning processes, such as community-led climate action planning or neighborhood-scale resilience planning, can help build local ownership and capacity for climate action

Regional and national policy alignment

  • While cities have significant authority over local policies and investments, they are also influenced by regional and national policy frameworks related to climate change
  • Alignment between local, regional, and national policies can help create a more supportive environment for urban climate action, such as through consistent emissions reduction targets or funding for adaptation projects
  • Cities can engage in regional collaborations, such as metropolitan planning organizations or climate action networks, to share best practices and advocate for supportive policies at higher levels of government

International networks and knowledge sharing

  • International networks and platforms, such as C40 Cities, ICLEI, and the Global Covenant of Mayors, play an important role in facilitating knowledge sharing and collaboration among cities on climate action
  • These networks provide opportunities for cities to learn from each other's successes and challenges, access technical assistance and resources, and demonstrate leadership on the global stage
  • Participation in international networks can also help cities build political momentum for climate action, by showcasing the growing movement of cities taking ambitious steps to reduce emissions and build resilience

Key Terms to Review (18)

Adaptive capacity: Adaptive capacity refers to the ability of a system, community, or organization to adjust to changes, such as climate change impacts, by anticipating potential risks and implementing effective responses. This concept emphasizes resilience and flexibility, allowing communities to thrive despite environmental stressors. Strong adaptive capacity enables cities to mitigate risks associated with climate change and improve their overall resilience against events like flooding and extreme weather.
Carbon footprint: A carbon footprint is the total amount of greenhouse gases, particularly carbon dioxide, that are emitted directly or indirectly by an individual, organization, event, or product, usually expressed in equivalent tons of CO2. This concept helps to measure the environmental impact of various activities and is crucial for understanding how our choices contribute to climate change and sustainability efforts.
Displacement due to climate change: Displacement due to climate change refers to the forced movement of people from their homes or communities as a direct result of the impacts of climate change, such as rising sea levels, extreme weather events, and environmental degradation. This phenomenon is increasingly becoming a global crisis, affecting urban areas and their infrastructure, as well as social dynamics and economies. Climate change exacerbates existing vulnerabilities in communities, leading to a cycle of displacement that challenges urban planning and sustainability efforts.
Environmental Equity: Environmental equity refers to the fair distribution of environmental benefits and burdens across all communities, ensuring that no group, especially marginalized populations, bears a disproportionate share of environmental hazards. This concept emphasizes the importance of justice in environmental policies and practices, advocating for equitable access to resources, clean air, water, and a healthy living environment for everyone. It is crucial in addressing systemic inequalities and fostering sustainable development.
Green infrastructure: Green infrastructure refers to a network of natural and semi-natural systems designed to manage stormwater, enhance urban biodiversity, and improve overall environmental health. This approach integrates green spaces, such as parks and green roofs, into urban planning to support ecosystem functions while providing recreational and aesthetic benefits to communities.
Integrated Urban Water Management: Integrated Urban Water Management (IUWM) is a holistic approach to managing water resources in urban areas, considering the entire water cycle, including supply, drainage, and wastewater treatment. This approach aims to balance environmental sustainability, economic efficiency, and social equity by integrating different water management practices into a cohesive strategy that addresses the challenges posed by urbanization and climate change.
IPCC: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is a United Nations body tasked with assessing scientific information related to climate change. It provides comprehensive reports that synthesize the latest research findings on climate change impacts, adaptation, and mitigation, playing a crucial role in informing global policy and strategies regarding climate action.
Mitigation: Mitigation refers to the strategies and actions taken to reduce or alleviate the severity of climate change impacts and other disasters. It focuses on minimizing risks and vulnerabilities in urban areas through proactive planning and resource management, aiming to create resilient communities that can withstand environmental stresses. By addressing the underlying causes of these challenges, mitigation is crucial for fostering sustainable urban environments that are better prepared for future uncertainties.
Paris Agreement: The Paris Agreement is an international treaty adopted in 2015 aimed at addressing climate change and its impacts by limiting global warming to well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels. It connects global climate goals to the local actions of cities, encouraging nations to set their own greenhouse gas reduction targets while fostering cooperation and support for sustainable development efforts.
Participatory Planning: Participatory planning is a collaborative approach to urban planning that actively involves community members in the decision-making process. This method not only ensures that the diverse voices of the community are heard but also fosters a sense of ownership and empowerment among residents, making them integral to the shaping of their own environments.
Resilience: Resilience refers to the capacity of urban systems to absorb, recover, and adapt in the face of challenges such as environmental stressors, economic shocks, and social upheaval. This concept emphasizes the importance of flexibility and adaptability in urban planning, allowing cities to withstand and bounce back from disturbances while maintaining essential functions. Resilience is key to creating sustainable urban environments that can thrive despite changes and uncertainties.
Sea level rise: Sea level rise refers to the increase in the average level of the world's oceans due to climate change, primarily caused by the melting of ice sheets and glaciers as well as the thermal expansion of seawater. This phenomenon poses significant risks to urban areas, especially those situated along coastlines, as rising waters can lead to flooding, erosion, and increased salinity in freshwater resources, ultimately impacting infrastructure, ecosystems, and communities.
Smart Growth: Smart growth is an urban planning approach that promotes sustainable and environmentally friendly development by encouraging compact, mixed-use communities, efficient transportation, and the preservation of natural resources. This method seeks to create livable neighborhoods that reduce reliance on automobiles, protect open spaces, and improve the overall quality of life for residents.
Sustainable transportation: Sustainable transportation refers to modes of transport that are environmentally friendly, socially equitable, and economically viable. This concept focuses on reducing greenhouse gas emissions, minimizing resource consumption, and promoting accessibility for all individuals. By integrating sustainable practices, cities can effectively address challenges related to urbanization and climate change while also supporting tourism and destination management strategies that prioritize conservation and responsible travel.
Urban biodiversity: Urban biodiversity refers to the variety of life forms, including plants, animals, and microorganisms, that exist in urban environments. This concept emphasizes the importance of integrating nature into city planning and development, as urban areas can support diverse ecosystems despite their built environments. Maintaining and enhancing urban biodiversity can improve the quality of life for residents and contribute to ecological resilience, especially in the face of challenges like climate change.
Urban heat island effect: The urban heat island effect refers to the phenomenon where urban areas experience significantly higher temperatures than their rural surroundings due to human activities and modifications to the landscape. This effect is mainly caused by factors such as increased concrete and asphalt surfaces, reduced vegetation, and waste heat generated from buildings and vehicles, which all contribute to elevated temperatures in cities. Understanding this effect is crucial for developing strategies to improve urban living conditions and address environmental concerns.
Vulnerability assessment: A vulnerability assessment is a systematic process used to identify, evaluate, and prioritize the weaknesses in a community or system that may be affected by climate change impacts. This assessment helps in understanding which areas or populations are most at risk, facilitating targeted interventions and resource allocation to improve resilience. It involves analyzing various factors such as physical infrastructure, socioeconomic conditions, and environmental hazards to determine potential vulnerabilities and inform urban planning strategies.
Zoning Regulations: Zoning regulations are rules set by local governments that dictate how land can be used and developed in different areas, often determining the types of buildings allowed and their functions. These regulations help manage urban growth, protect community character, and ensure compatible land uses, playing a crucial role in shaping cities and their development patterns.
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