6.4 The internment of Japanese Americans in the United States
4 min read•august 15, 2024
The internment of Japanese Americans during World War II was a dark chapter in U.S. history. After the attack, fear and led to the forced of over 110,000 people of Japanese descent, two-thirds of whom were American citizens.
authorized the internment, citing national security concerns. However, the policy was driven by prejudice and hysteria rather than evidence. Families were uprooted, losing homes and businesses, and endured harsh conditions in remote camps for years.
Japanese American Internment: Historical Context
Pearl Harbor and Executive Order 9066
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- Pearl Harbor attack on December 7, 1941 sparked fears of espionage by Japanese Americans on the West Coast
- President signed Executive Order 9066 on February 19, 1942
- Authorized removal and incarceration of over 110,000 Japanese Americans
- Two-thirds of internees were U.S. citizens
- Lt. General , head of Western Defense Command, advocated for internment policy implementation
Factors Contributing to Internment Decision
- Racial prejudice against Japanese Americans fueled support for internment
- Economic competition between Japanese American businesses and other groups intensified tensions
- Wartime hysteria amplified fears despite lack of evidence supporting disloyalty claims
- Anti-Japanese sentiment prevalent in American society
- Supported by prominent politicians (, future Supreme Court Chief Justice)
- Promoted by media outlets (newspapers, radio broadcasts)
- Endorsed by civilian organizations (American Legion, Native Sons of the Golden West)
Geographic Scope and Implementation
- Internment policy primarily affected West Coast Japanese Americans
- Implemented in California, Oregon, and Washington
- Parts of Arizona also impacted
- Internees initially relocated to temporary assembly centers
- Converted racetracks (Santa Anita, California)
- Fairgrounds (Puyallup, Washington)
- Ten major permanent internment camps established in remote locations
- Manzanar and Tule Lake (California)
- Minidoka (Idaho)
- Heart Mountain (Wyoming)
Internment's Impact on Japanese Americans
Economic and Social Disruption
- Japanese Americans forced to sell or abandon property
- Homes sold at fraction of market value
- Businesses liquidated or transferred to non-Japanese owners
- Personal belongings left behind or sold at significant loss
- Community structures disrupted by relocation
- Religious institutions (Buddhist temples, Christian churches) closed
- Japanese language schools shuttered
- Cultural organizations disbanded
- Families separated during internment process
- Some family members sent to different camps
- Extended families split up
Life in Internment Camps
- Substandard living conditions in remote, harsh environments
- Extreme temperatures (desert heat, mountain cold)
- Inadequate housing (tar paper barracks, communal latrines)
- Limited resources (food rationing, scarce medical supplies)
- Internees attempted to maintain normalcy
- Established schools within camps
- Organized cultural activities (sports leagues, art classes)
- Created community governance structures (elected block representatives)
- Psychological trauma experienced by internees
- Feelings of shame and betrayal
- Anger towards government actions
- Depression and anxiety
Long-Term Consequences
- Intergenerational trauma passed down to subsequent generations
- Reluctance to discuss internment experience
- Strained family relationships
- Loss of cultural identity for many Japanese Americans
- Pressure to assimilate after internment
- Decline in Japanese language use
- Some Japanese American men joined U.S. military to prove loyalty
- 442nd Regimental Combat Team formed
- Became most decorated unit for its size and length of service
Constitutionality and Morality of Internment
Legal Challenges and Supreme Court Decisions
- (1944) upheld internment's constitutionality
- Set controversial precedent in U.S. legal history
- Justice Frank Murphy's dissent called decision "legalization of racism"
- (1943) upheld curfew on Japanese Americans
- Violations of core constitutional principles
- rights infringed
- Equal protection clause disregarded
- Individual rights curtailed based on race
Government Acknowledgment and Reparations
- Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians established in 1980
- Concluded internment not justified by military necessity
- Identified root causes as "race prejudice, , and failure of political leadership"
- Civil Liberties Act of 1988 passed
- Formal government apology issued
- $20,000 in reparations provided to surviving internees
- Public education fund established to prevent future injustices
Ethical Considerations and Historical Lessons
- Internment raised questions about balancing national security and civil liberties
- Debate over limits of government power during crises
- Importance of protecting minority rights in times of fear
- Comparisons drawn to other discriminatory policies in U.S. history
- Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882
- Post-9/11 surveillance of Muslim Americans
- Internment serves as cautionary tale
- Dangers of scapegoating minority groups
- Importance of upholding constitutional protections for all citizens
- Ongoing relevance to contemporary debates
- Racial profiling in law enforcement
- Immigration policies and detention practices
Key Terms to Review (19)
American Civil Liberties Union: The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) is a nonprofit organization dedicated to defending and preserving individual rights and liberties guaranteed by the U.S. Constitution and laws. The ACLU has played a crucial role in advocating for civil rights, particularly during times of national crisis, such as World War II, when it opposed the internment of Japanese Americans and fought for their civil liberties.
Constitutional rights: Constitutional rights are the fundamental freedoms and protections granted to individuals by the Constitution, which serve to safeguard citizens from government abuse and ensure the fair treatment of all people under the law. These rights, often enshrined in a bill of rights or similar provisions, are crucial in maintaining democracy and protecting individual liberties. In the context of the internment of Japanese Americans during World War II, constitutional rights became a focal point as these rights were violated in the name of national security.
Due Process: Due process refers to the legal requirement that the state must respect all legal rights owed to a person. It ensures fair treatment through the normal judicial system, especially as a citizen's entitlement in the face of legal proceedings. In the context of the internment of Japanese Americans, due process was often disregarded, leading to significant legal and ethical issues surrounding civil liberties during wartime.
Earl Warren: Earl Warren was the 14th Chief Justice of the United States, serving from 1953 to 1969. His leadership of the Supreme Court is notable for its progressive rulings, especially concerning civil rights and civil liberties, which had significant implications for the internment of Japanese Americans during World War II. Warren's actions and decisions reflected a pivotal shift in American judicial philosophy, moving towards a more inclusive interpretation of the Constitution that sought to rectify historical injustices.
Evacuation orders: Evacuation orders refer to official directives issued by the government or military authorities requiring individuals or groups to leave a specific area for safety reasons. In the context of the internment of Japanese Americans during World War II, these orders were used to forcibly relocate Japanese Americans from their homes on the West Coast to internment camps, driven by wartime fears and prejudice following the attack on Pearl Harbor.
Executive Order 9066: Executive Order 9066 was a presidential directive issued by Franklin D. Roosevelt on February 19, 1942, that authorized the internment of Japanese Americans during World War II. This order allowed the military to designate certain areas as exclusion zones, leading to the forced relocation and incarceration of around 120,000 individuals of Japanese descent, most of whom were U.S. citizens.
Franklin D. Roosevelt: Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR) was the 32nd President of the United States, serving from 1933 until his death in 1945. His leadership during the Great Depression and World War II transformed the role of the federal government and set the stage for modern American political life.
Hirabayashi v. United States: Hirabayashi v. United States was a landmark Supreme Court case in 1943 that upheld the internment of Japanese Americans during World War II, specifically the curfew imposed on them. This case became a significant legal precedent, illustrating how wartime measures were justified under national security concerns, despite their implications for civil liberties. The decision reflected the broader context of discrimination and prejudice faced by Japanese Americans during this tumultuous period in American history.
Japanese American Citizens League: The Japanese American Citizens League (JACL) is a civil rights organization founded in 1929 that advocates for the rights of Japanese Americans. The JACL played a crucial role during and after World War II, especially in addressing the injustices faced by Japanese Americans, including their internment during the war. This organization sought to ensure that Japanese Americans were treated fairly and worked tirelessly to promote their civil rights and to combat discrimination.
Japanese American internment camps: Japanese American internment camps were facilities established by the U.S. government during World War II to detain approximately 120,000 Japanese Americans, the majority of whom were U.S. citizens. This action was fueled by wartime hysteria and racism, as fears of espionage and sabotage after the attack on Pearl Harbor led to the forced relocation and incarceration of these individuals, often in harsh conditions. The internment represents a significant violation of civil liberties and has had lasting implications for Japanese American communities and U.S. policy regarding minority rights.
John L. DeWitt: John L. DeWitt was a U.S. Army general who played a significant role in the internment of Japanese Americans during World War II. As the Western Defense Command chief, he was responsible for implementing the controversial Executive Order 9066, which authorized the forced relocation and internment of Japanese Americans, citing national security concerns amidst fears of espionage and sabotage following the Pearl Harbor attack.
Korematsu v. United States: Korematsu v. United States was a landmark Supreme Court case decided in 1944 that upheld the government's decision to intern Japanese Americans during World War II. The case arose when Fred Korematsu defied the internment order, challenging the constitutionality of the forced relocation and confinement of Japanese Americans based on national security concerns. This decision has been widely criticized in subsequent years for its implications on civil liberties and the balance between individual rights and government authority during wartime.
Pearl Harbor: Pearl Harbor refers to the U.S. naval base located on the island of Oahu, Hawaii, which was attacked by Japanese forces on December 7, 1941. This surprise military strike led to significant loss of life and damage to the Pacific Fleet, ultimately propelling the United States into World War II. The attack on Pearl Harbor not only marked a pivotal moment in American history but also set off a chain reaction of events that resulted in the internment of Japanese Americans, driven by wartime fears and racial prejudice.
Protests against internment: Protests against internment refer to the various actions and movements aimed at opposing the forced relocation and incarceration of Japanese Americans during World War II. These protests highlighted the injustices and violations of civil liberties that occurred as a result of wartime hysteria and racial prejudice. Activists, including individuals and organizations, sought to bring attention to the plight of those affected and worked to challenge the government's policies through legal means and public demonstrations.
Public opinion: Public opinion refers to the collective attitudes, beliefs, and views of individuals on various social, political, and economic issues. It plays a crucial role in shaping government policies and decisions, especially during times of conflict or national crisis. In the context of historical events, public opinion can significantly influence actions taken by governments and the treatment of specific groups, often reflecting societal values and fears.
Racism: Racism is the belief that one race is superior to another, leading to discrimination and prejudice based on racial or ethnic group membership. This harmful ideology can manifest in various forms, including systemic inequalities, social exclusion, and violent acts, deeply impacting individuals and societies. The internment of Japanese Americans during World War II serves as a prominent example of racism in action, where individuals were unjustly treated based solely on their ethnic background, fueled by fear and misinformation.
Relocation: Relocation refers to the act of moving a group of people from one place to another, often enforced by authorities. In the context of the internment of Japanese Americans during World War II, this term is specifically connected to the government-mandated movement of Japanese individuals and families to internment camps, driven by wartime fears and racial prejudice.
War hysteria: War hysteria refers to the intense emotional reaction and panic experienced by a society during times of conflict, often leading to irrational fears and prejudices against perceived enemies. This phenomenon can drive a nation towards drastic measures, such as internment or discrimination against specific groups, as seen in the United States during World War II when Japanese Americans faced widespread suspicion and hostility, leading to their forced relocation and internment.
Xenophobia: Xenophobia is the fear or hatred of people from other countries or cultures, often manifesting in prejudice, discrimination, and hostility towards those perceived as outsiders. This term captures a significant social issue that arises during times of crisis, such as war, leading to scapegoating and the marginalization of specific groups. In historical contexts, xenophobia can result in severe consequences, including internment, violence, and violation of civil rights, particularly against marginalized communities.