🪖World War II Unit 3 – The Early War in Europe

Key Players and Alliances

• Germany, Italy, and Japan formed the Axis powers through a series of agreements (Tripartite Pact) to counter the Allied powers
• The Allied powers initially included France, Great Britain, and Poland, later joined by the Soviet Union (after the German invasion) and the United States (after the attack on Pearl Harbor)
• Adolf Hitler, the leader of Nazi Germany, aimed to expand German territory and establish a "Third Reich" based on his ideology of Aryan supremacy
• Benito Mussolini, the fascist dictator of Italy, sought to restore the glory of the Roman Empire and expand Italian influence in the Mediterranean
• Winston Churchill became the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom in 1940 and led the country through the war with his inspiring speeches and unwavering determination
• Franklin D. Roosevelt, the President of the United States, provided support to the Allies through the Lend-Lease Act before officially entering the war after the attack on Pearl Harbor
• Joseph Stalin, the leader of the Soviet Union, initially had a non-aggression pact with Germany (Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact) but later joined the Allies after the German invasion (Operation Barbarossa)

Causes and Tensions Leading to War

• The harsh terms of the Treaty of Versailles, which ended World War I, left Germany resentful and economically devastated, creating a fertile ground for the rise of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party
• The Great Depression of the 1930s led to widespread economic instability and political unrest, allowing extremist ideologies like fascism and Nazism to gain popularity
• The failure of the League of Nations to effectively address international disputes and maintain peace encouraged aggressive nations to pursue expansionist policies
• The policy of appeasement adopted by Western powers, particularly Britain and France, in response to German and Italian aggression emboldened Hitler and Mussolini to continue their expansionist agenda
  • The Munich Agreement (1938) allowed Germany to annex the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia in exchange for a promise of peace, but it only encouraged Hitler's ambitions
• The Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) served as a proxy war between fascist and democratic forces, with Germany and Italy supporting the Nationalist faction led by Francisco Franco, while the Soviet Union supported the Republican government
• The Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact (Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact) of 1939 temporarily removed the threat of a two-front war for Germany and allowed Hitler to invade Poland without immediate Soviet intervention

The German Blitzkrieg

• Blitzkrieg, meaning "lightning war" in German, was a military tactic employed by the German Wehrmacht during the early stages of World War II
• The strategy involved a coordinated attack using fast-moving armored divisions (tanks), infantry, and close air support (Stuka dive-bombers) to quickly overwhelm enemy defenses and create a breakthrough
• Blitzkrieg relied on the element of surprise, speed, and the concentration of firepower to achieve rapid victories and minimize German casualties
• The German Panzer divisions, equipped with advanced tanks like the Panzer III and Panzer IV, formed the spearhead of the blitzkrieg attacks
• The Luftwaffe (German air force) played a crucial role in blitzkrieg by providing close air support, disrupting enemy communications, and targeting key infrastructure
• The success of blitzkrieg tactics was evident in the swift German victories in Poland (1939), France (1940), and the early stages of the invasion of the Soviet Union (Operation Barbarossa, 1941)
• The effectiveness of blitzkrieg began to diminish as the war progressed, due to the increasing strength of Allied defenses, the vastness of the Soviet territory, and the strain on German resources and supply lines

Fall of Poland and the Phoney War

• On September 1, 1939, Germany invaded Poland, marking the beginning of World War II in Europe
  • The invasion followed a staged attack on a German radio station (Gleiwitz incident) by SS forces posing as Poles, which Hitler used as a pretext for war
• Despite the Anglo-Polish military alliance, Britain and France did not immediately launch a significant offensive against Germany, leading to a period known as the "Phoney War" or "Sitzkrieg"
• The Polish army, although brave and determined, was outnumbered and outmatched by the German blitzkrieg tactics and superior technology
• The Soviet Union, in accordance with the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, invaded Poland from the east on September 17, 1939, effectively sealing Poland's fate
• The Polish capital, Warsaw, surrendered on September 27, 1939, after heavy bombardment and civilian casualties
• The fall of Poland demonstrated the effectiveness of Germany's blitzkrieg strategy and exposed the inadequacy of the Allies' response
• During the Phoney War, the Western Allies focused on building up their defenses and enforcing a naval blockade against Germany, while Germany prepared for further invasions

Nazi Expansion in Northern Europe

• After the conquest of Poland, Germany turned its attention to the neutral countries of Northern Europe
• In April 1940, Germany launched Operation Weserübung, the invasion of Denmark and Norway
  • Denmark, caught off guard and outmatched, capitulated within a few hours
  • Norway put up a stronger resistance with the help of British and French forces but ultimately fell under German occupation by June 1940
• The German occupation of Norway secured access to strategic ports and the valuable Swedish iron ore, which was crucial for the German war effort
• In May 1940, Germany launched an attack on the Low Countries (Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg) as part of their offensive against France
  • The Netherlands surrendered after the devastating bombing of Rotterdam, which killed thousands of civilians
  • Belgium, despite Allied assistance, was overrun by German forces and capitulated on May 28, 1940
• The German occupation of the Low Countries provided a strategic platform for the invasion of France and eliminated the possibility of an Allied counterattack from the north

Battle of France and Dunkirk

• The Battle of France began on May 10, 1940, with a German offensive through the Ardennes region, bypassing the heavily fortified Maginot Line
• The German Panzer divisions, led by General Heinz Guderian, rapidly advanced through the French countryside, outflanking the Allied defenses
• The Allied forces, including the British Expeditionary Force (BEF), were pushed back to the coast, trapped in a pocket around the French port of Dunkirk
• Operation Dynamo, the evacuation of Allied troops from Dunkirk, began on May 26, 1940
  • Over 300,000 British and French soldiers were evacuated to Britain using a fleet of naval vessels and civilian boats (the "Little Ships of Dunkirk")
  • The successful evacuation boosted British morale and allowed the country to continue the fight against Germany
• Despite the evacuation, the Battle of France was a major victory for Germany
  • Paris fell on June 14, 1940, and France signed an armistice with Germany on June 22, 1940
  • The armistice divided France into an occupied zone under direct German control and a collaborationist government led by Marshal Philippe Pétain in Vichy

Battle of Britain

• After the fall of France, Germany planned to invade Britain (Operation Sea Lion) but first needed to achieve air superiority over the English Channel
• The Battle of Britain, a series of intense air battles between the German Luftwaffe and the British Royal Air Force (RAF), began in July 1940
• The Luftwaffe initially targeted British coastal convoys and ports but later shifted to attacking RAF airfields and infrastructure (the "Adlertag" or "Eagle Day" attacks)
• The RAF, led by Air Chief Marshal Hugh Dowding, relied on an integrated air defense system that included radar, ground observers, and a network of fighter control rooms
• British pilots, including those from the Commonwealth and occupied countries (the "Few"), flew iconic aircraft such as the Hawker Hurricane and the Supermarine Spitfire
• The turning point of the battle came on September 15, 1940 (Battle of Britain Day), when the RAF inflicted heavy losses on the Luftwaffe, forcing Hitler to indefinitely postpone Operation Sea Lion
• The British victory in the Battle of Britain was a significant morale boost for the Allies and demonstrated the resilience of the British people under the leadership of Winston Churchill

The War at Sea

• The Battle of the Atlantic was a prolonged naval campaign between the Allies and Germany, fought to maintain the vital supply lines between North America and Britain
• German U-boats (submarines) targeted Allied merchant ships in an attempt to cut off Britain's lifeline and starve the country into submission
• The Allies employed various tactics to counter the U-boat threat, including convoys, long-range patrol aircraft, and the development of advanced anti-submarine technologies (ASDIC/sonar, depth charges, and the Hedgehog mortar)
• The breaking of the German Enigma code by British cryptographers at Bletchley Park provided crucial intelligence on U-boat movements and greatly aided the Allied war effort
• The entry of the United States into the war in December 1941 tipped the balance in favor of the Allies, as American shipyards and resources significantly increased the Allied naval presence in the Atlantic
• Other notable naval engagements during the early war period included the Battle of the River Plate (1939), the sinking of the German battleship Bismarck (1941), and the attack on the Italian fleet at Taranto (1940)

Impact on Civilian Life

• World War II had a profound impact on civilian life, both in the countries directly involved in the conflict and those affected by the global economic and social upheaval
• In Britain, the Blitz (1940-1941) saw German bombers targeting major cities, causing widespread destruction and loss of life
  • Civilians sought shelter in underground stations, cellars, and purpose-built air-raid shelters
  • The British government implemented rationing, blackouts, and evacuation schemes to protect the population and conserve resources
• Across occupied Europe, civilians faced hardships such as food shortages, forced labor, and repression under Nazi rule
  • The Holocaust, the systematic murder of six million European Jews and other targeted groups, stands as one of the darkest chapters in human history
  • Resistance movements emerged in many occupied countries, engaging in sabotage, intelligence gathering, and aiding Allied forces
• On the home front, women played a crucial role in the war effort, taking up jobs in factories, farms, and the military to replace men who had gone to fight
  • The iconic image of "Rosie the Riveter" in the United States symbolized the contribution of women to the war effort
• The war also saw significant advances in medicine and technology, driven by the need to treat wounded soldiers and develop new weapons and equipment
  • Penicillin, blood plasma transfusions, and the use of DDT to control insect-borne diseases saved countless lives during and after the war