☯️Science and the Sacred Unit 9 – Science and Religion: Life's Meaning

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Meaning of life refers to the philosophical and religious question concerning the purpose and significance of human existence
• Teleology is the explanation of phenomena in terms of the purpose they serve rather than of the cause by which they arise
• Existentialism emphasizes individual existence, freedom and choice, and that life has no inherent meaning or purpose
  • Existential nihilism posits that life is without objective meaning, purpose, or intrinsic value
• Theistic worldviews assert that God created the universe and gives life meaning and purpose
  • Divine command theory is the belief that what is moral is determined by what God commands
• Secular humanism seeks meaning in life through human values and scientific inquiry rather than religious belief
• Absurdism is the belief that the human tendency to seek inherent meaning in life is ultimately futile and absurd
• Ontology is the branch of metaphysics dealing with the nature of being and existence

Historical Context

• Ancient Greek philosophers (Socrates, Plato, Aristotle) contemplated the meaning of life and the nature of human existence
• Medieval Christian theologians (Augustine, Aquinas) viewed life's purpose through the lens of serving God and achieving salvation
• The Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment challenged traditional religious views and emphasized reason and empiricism
  • Copernican heliocentrism and Newtonian mechanics undermined the notion of a Earth-centered, divinely ordered cosmos
• 19th century thinkers (Kierkegaard, Nietzsche) grappled with the implications of a world without inherent meaning or purpose
• 20th century existentialists (Sartre, Camus) explored the human condition and the absurdity of seeking meaning in a meaningless universe
• Postmodern thought has questioned the possibility of objective truth and universal narratives about life's meaning
• The rise of secularism and decline of religious belief in many societies has reshaped debates about life's purpose

Scientific Perspectives on Life's Meaning

• Evolutionary biology explains the diversity and complexity of life through natural selection and adaptation
  • Life evolves without inherent purpose or direction, driven by the survival and reproduction of genes
• Neuroscience and cognitive science investigate the neural basis of consciousness, emotion, and subjective experience
• Physics describes a universe governed by impersonal laws and forces, without apparent concern for human existence
  • The vastness of the cosmos and the ultimate fate of the universe (heat death, Big Rip) suggest cosmic insignificance
• Chemistry and biochemistry reveal the intricate molecular machinery that underlies life processes
• Genetics and molecular biology have uncovered the genetic code and the mechanisms of heredity and development
• Scientific materialism holds that only the physical world exists and that consciousness and meaning are emergent properties of matter
• Some scientists (Carl Sagan, Richard Dawkins) have argued that science itself can provide a sense of awe and wonder at the universe

Religious Views on Life's Purpose

• Abrahamic religions (Judaism, Christianity, Islam) teach that life's purpose is to know, love, and serve God
  • Humans are created in God's image and have a special role and destiny in the divine plan
• Eastern religions (Hinduism, Buddhism) emphasize spiritual liberation from the cycle of birth and death
  • The ultimate goal is to achieve moksha (Hinduism) or nirvana (Buddhism) and end suffering
• Theistic religions generally posit an afterlife where the righteous are rewarded and the wicked are punished
• Deism holds that God created the universe but does not intervene in it, leaving humans to find their own purpose
• Process theology sees God and the world as interdependent and evolving, with humans as co-creators in the divine process
• Pantheism identifies God with the universe itself, so that nature and existence are inherently sacred and meaningful
• Religious pluralism acknowledges the diversity of religious beliefs and the possibility of multiple paths to truth and meaning

Intersections and Conflicts

• The Galileo affair and the trial of Galileo highlighted tensions between science and religious authority
• Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection conflicted with literal interpretations of biblical creation narratives
  • The Scopes "Monkey" Trial tested the teaching of human evolution in public schools
• Scientific explanations for the origin of the universe (Big Bang) and of life (abiogenesis) challenge religious cosmologies
• Neuroscientific explanations of religious experience as brain states question the validity of spiritual revelation
• The problem of evil and suffering raises doubts about the existence of an all-powerful, all-good God
• Scientific determinism and the denial of free will undermine notions of moral responsibility and purpose
• Secular and scientific critiques of religion as irrational, superstitious, or harmful to society and human progress
• Attempts at reconciling science and religion through ideas like theistic evolution, intelligent design, or non-overlapping magisteria (NOMA)

Philosophical Debates

• The is-ought problem questions whether statements about what ought to be can be derived from statements about what is
• The fact-value distinction separates objective facts from subjective values and challenges the objectivity of moral truths
• Hume's guillotine argues that prescriptive statements (about what ought to be) cannot be deduced from descriptive statements (about what is)
  • "You can't derive an 'ought' from an 'is'"
• The naturalistic fallacy is the alleged error of inferring evaluative conclusions from purely factual premises
• Moral realism holds that there are objective moral truths independent of human opinion, while moral anti-realism denies this
• Moral relativism maintains that moral judgments are relative to individual or cultural beliefs and practices
• The Euthyphro dilemma asks whether something is good because God commands it, or whether God commands it because it is good
• Theodicy is the attempt to reconcile the existence of evil and suffering with the existence of an all-powerful, all-good God

Modern Interpretations and Synthesis

• Existential psychotherapy helps individuals confront existential concerns and create personal meaning in their lives
• Secular humanism affirms the dignity and worth of all people, and their ability to determine right and wrong and live meaningful lives
  • Humanist Manifesto III (2003) outlines a naturalistic worldview and progressive values
• Religious naturalism integrates religious attitudes and spiritual practices with a scientific understanding of nature
• Process philosophy and theology emphasize becoming, creativity, and the interconnectedness of all things
• The Epic of Evolution situates human life within the grand narrative of cosmic evolution and the emergence of complexity
• The Gaia hypothesis views the Earth as a self-regulating system and highlights the interdependence of life and environment
• Integral theory seeks to integrate insights from various fields (science, religion, philosophy) into a comprehensive worldview
• Constructive postmodernism affirms the importance of meaning-making while recognizing the limitations of grand narratives

Practical Applications and Ethics

• Meaning-centered psychotherapy helps patients with terminal illness or existential distress find purpose and peace
• Eco-spirituality and environmental ethics derive a sense of meaning and moral obligation from the sacredness of nature
• The Cosmic Perspective (Carl Sagan) invites wonder at the vastness of the universe and gratitude for the rarity of life
• Bioethics grapples with the moral implications of new technologies (genetic engineering, cloning, AI) for the meaning of life
  • The transhumanist movement seeks to enhance human capacities and transcend biological limitations
• Effective altruism applies reason and evidence to determine the most effective ways to benefit others and reduce suffering
• Interfaith dialogue and cooperation seek to build understanding and common ground among diverse religious traditions
• Contemplative practices (meditation, prayer, mindfulness) can cultivate a sense of meaning, purpose, and connection
• Existential positive psychology focuses on the development of character strengths, resilience, and post-traumatic growth in the face of adversity