🐉Sacred Arts in China Unit 2 – Confucianism and Sacred Arts

Historical Context

• Confucianism emerged during the Spring and Autumn period (770-476 BCE) and Warring States period (475-221 BCE) in ancient China
• Developed as a response to the social and political turmoil of the time, which saw the decline of the Zhou dynasty and the rise of competing states
• Confucius (551-479 BCE) sought to restore harmony and order to society through the cultivation of virtue and the adherence to ethical principles
• Confucianism became the dominant philosophical and ethical system in China during the Han dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE)
  • Gained official state support and patronage
  • Influenced the structure of government, education, and social relations
• Confucianism continued to shape Chinese culture and society for over two millennia, despite challenges from other philosophical schools (Daoism, Legalism) and foreign influences (Buddhism)

Key Figures and Texts

• Confucius (551-479 BCE), also known as Kong Qiu or K'ung-fu-tzu, is the founder of Confucianism
  • Born into a noble family in the state of Lu (present-day Shandong Province)
  • Worked as a teacher, political advisor, and philosopher
• Mencius (372-289 BCE), also known as Meng Ke or Mengzi, was a prominent Confucian philosopher who expanded on Confucius' teachings
  • Emphasized the inherent goodness of human nature and the importance of moral cultivation
• Xunzi (c. 310-235 BCE) was another influential Confucian philosopher who argued that human nature is inherently selfish and requires moral education and ritual to be reformed
• The Analects (Lunyu) is the primary text of Confucianism, compiled by Confucius' disciples after his death
  • Contains Confucius' sayings, dialogues, and teachings on ethics, politics, and personal cultivation
• The Five Classics (Wujing) are a set of ancient Chinese texts that form the foundation of Confucian learning and scholarship
  • Includes the Book of Changes (Yijing), Book of Documents (Shujing), Book of Poetry (Shijing), Book of Rites (Liji), and Spring and Autumn Annals (Chunqiu)
• The Four Books (Sishu) are a set of Confucian texts that became the basis for civil service examinations during the Song dynasty (960-1279 CE)
  • Includes the Great Learning (Daxue), Doctrine of the Mean (Zhongyong), Analects (Lunyu), and Mencius (Mengzi)

Core Principles of Confucianism

• Ren (benevolence or humaneness) is the central virtue in Confucianism, encompassing qualities such as compassion, empathy, and kindness
  • Confucius believed that cultivating ren is the highest goal of moral self-cultivation
• Li (ritual propriety) refers to the proper observance of rituals, ceremonies, and social norms that regulate human behavior and relationships
  • Confucius emphasized the importance of li in maintaining social harmony and order
• Xiao (filial piety) is the virtue of respect, obedience, and devotion to one's parents and ancestors
  • Confucius viewed xiao as the foundation of all other virtues and the basis for a stable society
• Zhong (loyalty) is the virtue of faithfulness and dedication to one's superiors, friends, and country
• Yi (righteousness) is the virtue of doing what is morally right and just, even in the face of adversity or personal sacrifice
• Junzi (gentleman or exemplary person) is the Confucian ideal of a morally cultivated individual who embodies the virtues of ren, li, xiao, zhong, and yi
  • Confucius believed that the junzi should serve as a model for others and contribute to the betterment of society
• Zhengming (rectification of names) is the Confucian principle of ensuring that language and titles accurately reflect reality and social roles
  • Confucius believed that the proper use of language is essential for maintaining social order and harmony

Confucian Influence on Art

• Confucianism emphasized the didactic and moral function of art, viewing it as a means to cultivate virtue and convey ethical principles
• Confucian themes and values, such as filial piety, loyalty, and social harmony, were frequently depicted in Chinese art
  • Examples include paintings of exemplary figures (Confucius, Mencius) and illustrations of the Twenty-four Filial Exemplars
• Calligraphy, the art of beautiful writing, was highly valued in Confucian culture as a means of self-cultivation and expression
  • Mastery of calligraphy was considered a mark of a junzi (gentleman) and a prerequisite for government service
• Confucian rituals and ceremonies, such as ancestral worship and state sacrifices, were accompanied by music and dance performances
  • The Book of Rites (Liji) contains detailed descriptions of the proper music and dance for various occasions
• Confucian ideas of simplicity, restraint, and harmony influenced the aesthetics of Chinese art, particularly in the fields of painting, poetry, and garden design
  • Artists sought to convey the essence of a subject through minimal brushstrokes and subtle compositions
• Confucian scholars and officials often served as patrons of the arts, commissioning works that reflected their values and tastes
  • Scholar-officials also engaged in artistic pursuits (painting, calligraphy, poetry) as a means of self-cultivation and social networking

Sacred Arts and Rituals

• Confucianism placed great importance on the proper performance of rituals and ceremonies as a means of maintaining social order and harmony
• Ancestral worship was a central aspect of Confucian ritual practice, involving offerings of food, drink, and incense to the spirits of deceased ancestors
  • Ancestral temples and shrines were constructed to house the ancestral tablets and host ritual ceremonies
• State sacrifices were elaborate ceremonies performed by the emperor and high officials to honor the gods and ancestors of the ruling dynasty
  • The Temple of Heaven in Beijing was the site of the most important state sacrifices, such as the annual winter solstice ceremony
• Confucian rituals were often accompanied by music and dance performances, which were believed to have a civilizing and harmonizing effect on participants and observers
  • The Book of Rites (Liji) contains detailed descriptions of the proper music and dance for various occasions
• Confucian scholars and officials were expected to be well-versed in the classics and to perform rituals with precision and sincerity
  • Mastery of ritual was considered a mark of a junzi (gentleman) and a prerequisite for government service
• Confucian rituals and ceremonies were not only religious acts but also social and political events that reinforced hierarchies and power structures
  • Participation in rituals was a way of demonstrating one's status and loyalty to the state and the ruling dynasty

Symbolism and Iconography

• Confucian art and architecture often employed symbolic motifs and iconography to convey moral and philosophical ideas
• The dragon, a symbol of power, strength, and good fortune, was frequently depicted in Confucian art and used to represent the emperor and the imperial authority
• The phoenix, a symbol of virtue, grace, and harmony, was often paired with the dragon to represent the empress and the complementary nature of yin and yang
• The crane, a symbol of longevity, wisdom, and spiritual transcendence, was associated with Confucian scholars and officials who had achieved a high level of moral cultivation
• The pine tree, a symbol of resilience, endurance, and moral integrity, was often depicted in Confucian art and used to represent the junzi (gentleman) who remains steadfast in the face of adversity
• The plum blossom, a symbol of perseverance, purity, and renewal, was associated with Confucian scholars who maintained their moral principles in times of hardship and political upheaval
• The Confucian scholar's studio, a space for study, reflection, and artistic pursuits, was often adorned with symbolic objects (brushes, inkstones, scrolls) that represented the virtues and ideals of Confucianism
• The Confucian temple, a site for ritual ceremonies and moral education, was designed according to cosmological principles and adorned with symbolic motifs (dragons, phoenixes, cranes) that reinforced Confucian values and hierarchies

Cultural Impact and Legacy

• Confucianism had a profound and lasting impact on Chinese culture, shaping the values, beliefs, and practices of Chinese society for over two millennia
• Confucian ideas of social harmony, moral cultivation, and political order became deeply ingrained in Chinese culture and influenced the development of Chinese art, literature, and philosophy
• The Confucian emphasis on education and meritocracy led to the establishment of a sophisticated system of schools and examinations that produced a highly literate and cultured elite
  • Success in the civil service examinations, which tested candidates' knowledge of the Confucian classics, became the primary means of social mobility and political advancement in imperial China
• Confucian values of filial piety, loyalty, and respect for authority shaped the structure of Chinese families and communities, with the family serving as a microcosm of the state and the emperor as the ultimate father figure
• Confucian ideas of moral leadership and benevolent governance influenced the development of Chinese political thought and the concept of the Mandate of Heaven, which legitimized the rule of virtuous emperors
• Confucianism also had a significant impact on the cultures of neighboring countries, such as Japan, Korea, and Vietnam, which adopted and adapted Confucian ideas and practices to suit their own cultural and political contexts
• The legacy of Confucianism can still be seen in contemporary Chinese culture, from the emphasis on education and social harmony to the persistence of traditional values and practices (filial piety, ancestor worship)

Modern Interpretations

• In the 20th century, Confucianism faced challenges from Western ideas and the forces of modernization, leading to a reevaluation and reinterpretation of Confucian thought
• The May Fourth Movement (1919) and the New Culture Movement (1915-1923) criticized Confucianism as a backward and oppressive ideology that hindered China's progress and called for a rejection of traditional values in favor of Western ideas (democracy, science)
• Neo-Confucian philosophers, such as Xiong Shili (1885-1968) and Feng Youlan (1895-1990), sought to revive and modernize Confucian thought by incorporating Western philosophical concepts and addressing contemporary social and political issues
  • Xiong Shili developed a metaphysical system that combined Confucian ideas of moral cultivation with Buddhist concepts of emptiness and transformation
  • Feng Youlan created a systematic philosophy that integrated Confucian ethics with Western logic and epistemology
• The Chinese Communist Party initially rejected Confucianism as a feudal ideology but later selectively appropriated Confucian ideas and symbols to bolster its legitimacy and promote social stability
  • The "Harmonious Society" campaign launched by President Hu Jintao in 2005 drew on Confucian ideas of social harmony and moral governance
• In the 21st century, there has been a resurgence of interest in Confucianism both in China and abroad, with scholars and policymakers exploring the relevance of Confucian ideas for addressing contemporary challenges (globalization, environmental sustainability, social inequality)
• New Confucian thinkers, such as Tu Weiming (1940-) and Jiang Qing (1953-), have sought to develop a modern Confucian philosophy that engages with global issues and promotes cross-cultural dialogue
  • Tu Weiming has advocated for a "third epoch of Confucian humanism" that emphasizes the cultivation of global ethics and the creation of a "dialogical civilization"
  • Jiang Qing has proposed a political Confucianism that combines Confucian ideas of moral leadership with Western concepts of constitutionalism and human rights