5.2 East-West Schism
6 min read•august 20, 2024
The was a major split in Christianity that occurred in 1054 AD. It resulted from centuries of growing differences between the Eastern Orthodox and Western Catholic churches in theology, politics, and culture.
The schism led to two distinct branches of Christianity with separate hierarchies and practices. While efforts at reconciliation have been made, the division persists today, shaping the landscape of global Christianity.
Origins of the schism
- The East-West Schism, also known as the , was a gradual process of estrangement between the and the Western Catholic Church that began in the 9th century and culminated in 1054 AD
- The schism was the result of a combination of theological, political, and cultural differences that had been building up over centuries
- The split between the two churches had far-reaching consequences for the development of Christianity and the relationship between Eastern and Western Europe
Theological differences
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- Disagreements over the doctrine of the Holy Spirit, specifically the , which states that the Holy Spirit proceeds from both the Father and the Son (Catholic view) rather than just the Father (Orthodox view)
- Differences in understanding the nature of Christ, with the East emphasizing the distinction between Christ's human and divine natures, while the West stressed their unity
- Divergent views on the use of unleavened bread in the Eucharist, with the East using leavened bread and the West using unleavened bread
Political factors
- The decline of the and the rise of the Franks in the West led to a shift in the balance of power and increased tensions between East and West
- The Papacy's growing claims to universal authority and jurisdiction over the entire Church were met with resistance from the Eastern patriarchs
- The coronation of Charlemagne as Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Leo III in 800 AD was seen as a challenge to the authority of the Byzantine Emperor
Cultural distinctions
- Language barriers between Greek-speaking East and Latin-speaking West hindered communication and understanding
- Different liturgical practices and traditions developed in the East and West over time, reflecting their distinct cultural and historical contexts
- The East's closer ties to Greek philosophy and the West's increasing reliance on Roman law and feudal structures contributed to divergent worldviews and approaches to theology and church governance
Key figures in the schism
Patriarch Michael I Cerularius
- Michael I Cerularius was the Patriarch of Constantinople from 1043 to 1059 and played a crucial role in the events leading up to the Great Schism
- He was a strong defender of the Eastern Orthodox Church's traditions and autonomy and resisted the growing claims of
- In 1053, Cerularius ordered the closure of Latin churches in Constantinople that used unleavened bread in the Eucharist, escalating tensions with the West
Pope Leo IX
- was the head of the Catholic Church from 1049 to 1054 and was known for his efforts to reform the Church and assert papal authority
- He sent Cardinal Humbert of Silva Candida to Constantinople in 1054 to negotiate with Patriarch Cerularius and resolve the growing differences between the churches
- When negotiations broke down, Cardinal Humbert, acting on behalf of Pope Leo IX, excommunicated Cerularius and his supporters, which Cerularius reciprocated, marking the formal beginning of the schism
Major events leading to the schism
Filioque controversy
- The centered on the addition of the phrase "and the Son" (Latin: Filioque) to the Nicene Creed, which describes the procession of the Holy Spirit
- The Western Church had gradually adopted this phrase, while the Eastern Church rejected it as an unauthorized change to the original creed
- The dispute over the Filioque reflected deeper theological differences between East and West and became a major point of contention in the lead-up to the schism
Excommunications of 1054
- In 1054, Cardinal Humbert, acting on behalf of Pope Leo IX, entered the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople during a liturgy and placed a papal bull of excommunication on the altar, excommunicating Patriarch Cerularius and his supporters
- Cerularius responded by excommunicating Humbert and the other papal legates, as well as Pope Leo IX himself (although Leo had died by this time)
- These mutual excommunications marked the formal beginning of the East-West Schism, although the process of estrangement had been ongoing for centuries
Doctrinal differences
Authority of the Pope
- The Western Church, centered in Rome, emphasized the primacy and universal jurisdiction of the Pope as the successor of Saint Peter and the Vicar of Christ on earth
- The Eastern Church, while acknowledging the Pope's primacy of honor, rejected the idea of papal supremacy and insisted on the autonomy and equality of the five ancient patriarchates (Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem)
- This disagreement over the extent and nature of papal authority was a major factor in the schism and remains a point of contention between the Catholic and Orthodox churches today
Role of the Holy Spirit
- The Filioque controversy, as mentioned earlier, centered on the procession of the Holy Spirit and reflected different understandings of the Trinity in the East and West
- The Eastern Church maintained that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father alone, as stated in the original Nicene Creed, and saw the Filioque as an unauthorized addition that upset the balance of the Trinity
- The Western Church, by including the Filioque, emphasized the unity of the Father and the Son in the procession of the Holy Spirit and saw it as a necessary clarification of the doctrine of the Trinity
Liturgical practices
- The East and West developed distinct liturgical practices and traditions over time, reflecting their different cultural and historical contexts
- One major difference was the use of leavened bread in the Eastern Church and unleavened bread in the Western Church for the Eucharist
- Other differences included the language of the liturgy (Greek in the East, Latin in the West), the style of church architecture and iconography, and the practice of clerical celibacy (more common in the West)
Attempts at reconciliation
Council of Lyon (1274)
- The Second was convened by Pope Gregory X in an attempt to reunite the Eastern and Western churches
- The council addressed the Filioque issue and other doctrinal differences and reached a temporary union between the churches
- However, the union was short-lived and met with resistance from many in the Eastern Church who saw it as a submission to papal authority
Council of Florence (1439)
- The was another attempt to heal the schism and reunite the Catholic and Orthodox churches
- The council reached an agreement on the Filioque, the primacy of the Pope, and other doctrinal issues, and a decree of union (Laetentur Caeli) was signed by representatives of both churches
- However, like the Council of Lyon, the union was met with opposition in the East and ultimately failed to bring about lasting reconciliation
Lasting impact of the schism
Development of distinct churches
- The East-West Schism led to the development of two distinct branches of Christianity: the Eastern Orthodox Church and the
- Each church developed its own hierarchical structure, theological traditions, and liturgical practices, and the schism allowed for the emergence of national churches in the East (e.g., Russian Orthodox, Greek Orthodox)
- The schism also had political consequences, as the division between East and West contributed to the weakening of the Byzantine Empire and the rise of Western European powers
East vs West Christianity
- The schism solidified the cultural, linguistic, and theological differences between Eastern and Western Christianity
- The East continued to be influenced by Greek philosophy and maintained a more mystical and apophatic approach to theology, while the West developed a more rationalistic and scholastic tradition
- The division between East and West also had implications for the spread of Christianity, with the Catholic Church becoming dominant in Western Europe and the Orthodox Church remaining prevalent in Eastern Europe and the Middle East
Ecumenical efforts in modern times
- In recent decades, there have been significant efforts to promote dialogue and understanding between the Catholic and Orthodox churches
- The Second Vatican Council (1962-1965) encouraged ecumenical outreach and recognized the validity of the Eastern churches' and traditions
- Meetings between Popes and Orthodox Patriarchs, such as the historic encounter between Pope Paul VI and Patriarch Athenagoras I in 1964, have helped to improve relations and foster a spirit of reconciliation
- Despite these efforts, the East-West Schism remains a reality, and full communion between the Catholic and Orthodox churches has not been restored, although both sides continue to work towards greater unity and understanding
Key Terms to Review (21)
Autocephaly: Autocephaly refers to the status of a church or religious jurisdiction that governs itself independently without external authority, particularly in the context of Eastern Orthodox Christianity. It signifies a church's complete administrative autonomy, allowing it to elect its own leaders and manage its own affairs while maintaining communion with other Orthodox churches. This concept is crucial in understanding the dynamics of church governance and the relationships between different Orthodox jurisdictions.
Byzantine Empire: The Byzantine Empire was the eastern half of the Roman Empire that continued to exist after the fall of Rome in the West in 476 CE. Centered in Constantinople, it was a hub of culture, trade, and Christianity, preserving ancient knowledge while also experiencing significant theological and political developments, including the East-West Schism.
Council of Chalcedon: The Council of Chalcedon, held in 451 CE, was the fourth ecumenical council recognized by both the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Churches. It is primarily known for defining the dual nature of Christ as both fully divine and fully human, a crucial element in Christology. This council also solidified church authority and contributed to the growing theological divide between the Eastern and Western Christian traditions, setting the stage for future schisms.
Council of Florence: The Council of Florence was an ecumenical council held between 1431 and 1445, primarily aimed at reconciling the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church. It was significant for addressing the issues that led to the East-West Schism, including theological disagreements and the question of papal authority, and it attempted to achieve unity between the two churches through a series of discussions and decrees.
Council of Lyon: The Council of Lyon, held in 1274, was a significant ecumenical council of the Catholic Church aimed at addressing issues of unity between the Eastern and Western Churches, as well as other ecclesiastical matters. This council sought to reaffirm the authority of the Pope while also striving to reconcile differences that contributed to the East-West Schism, which had been growing since the 11th century. It is notable for its attempts to bridge theological gaps and improve relations between the two branches of Christianity.
East-West Schism: The East-West Schism, also known as the Great Schism of 1054, refers to the formal split between the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholic Church. This division arose from a combination of theological disagreements, cultural differences, and political tensions, ultimately leading to a lasting separation that shaped the religious landscape of Christianity in the West and the East.
Eastern Orthodox Church: The Eastern Orthodox Church is a Christian denomination that emerged from the early Christian community and has its roots in the Byzantine Empire. It is characterized by its adherence to the teachings of the early church, the use of traditional liturgical practices, and a strong emphasis on the continuity of apostolic succession. The Eastern Orthodox Church plays a significant role in understanding the cultural and religious divides within Christianity, especially regarding historical events that shaped its relationship with the Western Church.
Episcopal polity: Episcopal polity is a form of church governance in which authority is held by bishops, who oversee multiple congregations and have the power to make significant decisions regarding doctrine and practice. This structure emphasizes a hierarchical system where bishops are responsible for the spiritual guidance of their dioceses and maintain a connection among the churches within their jurisdiction. This governance model has played a crucial role in shaping various Christian denominations, particularly during significant historical events such as the East-West Schism.
Excommunications of 1054: The Excommunications of 1054 were formal acts by which the leaders of the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church mutually excommunicated each other, marking a pivotal moment in the East-West Schism. This event highlighted deep theological and political divides between the two branches of Christianity, including disputes over papal authority and doctrinal differences such as the filioque clause.
Filioque clause: The filioque clause is a Latin phrase meaning 'and the Son,' which refers to the belief that the Holy Spirit proceeds from both the Father and the Son. This theological concept became a central point of contention between the Western (Roman Catholic) and Eastern (Orthodox) churches, contributing to the East-West Schism in 1054. The disagreement over this clause highlighted deeper theological, political, and cultural rifts between the two branches of Christianity.
Filioque controversy: The filioque controversy refers to the theological dispute over the phrase 'and the Son' in the Nicene Creed, which concerns the procession of the Holy Spirit from both the Father and the Son. This debate arose between Eastern and Western Christianity, leading to significant tensions and disagreements regarding the nature of the Trinity, ultimately contributing to the East-West Schism. It highlights deeper issues of authority, tradition, and interpretation within the Christian faith.
Great Schism: The Great Schism refers to the significant division that occurred in 1054 between the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholic Church, marking a pivotal moment in Christian history. This split resulted from various theological, political, and cultural differences that had developed over centuries, leading to mutual excommunications and the establishment of separate religious identities. Understanding this division is crucial for grasping the subsequent development of Eastern Orthodoxy and its distinct beliefs and practices.
Original Sin: Original sin is the Christian doctrine that asserts that all human beings inherit a fallen state due to the first sin committed by Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden. This concept underscores the idea of humanity's inherent need for redemption and links closely to themes of salvation, grace, and moral responsibility throughout Christian theology.
Papal authority: Papal authority refers to the power and influence that the Pope holds over the Roman Catholic Church and its members, grounded in the belief that he is the successor of Saint Peter, whom Jesus appointed as the head of his disciples. This authority encompasses doctrinal, moral, and administrative guidance for the church, asserting the Pope's role as a spiritual leader and an important figure in religious matters. Understanding papal authority is crucial for exploring the historical and theological developments within Christianity, especially concerning the division between Eastern Orthodoxy and Roman Catholicism.
Patriarch Michael I Cerularius: Patriarch Michael I Cerularius was the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople from 1043 to 1059 and is best known for his role in the events leading up to the East-West Schism. His actions and policies, particularly his opposition to the Latin Church and the papacy, significantly heightened tensions between Eastern and Western Christianity.
Pope Leo IX: Pope Leo IX was the head of the Roman Catholic Church from 1049 until his death in 1054, known for his strong leadership and commitment to reforming the church. His papacy is significant in the context of the East-West Schism, as he was a key figure in the tensions between the Latin and Eastern Orthodox churches, primarily due to issues of authority and theological differences.
Priestly celibacy: Priestly celibacy is the vow taken by priests in the Roman Catholic Church to abstain from marriage and sexual relations, committing themselves entirely to their spiritual duties and the service of God. This practice is rooted in the belief that celibacy allows priests to dedicate themselves fully to their congregations and fosters a deeper spiritual connection with God. Over time, it has also become a point of contention, particularly in discussions about church reform and the role of clergy.
Roman Catholic Church: The Roman Catholic Church is the largest Christian church, led by the Pope and characterized by its tradition, sacraments, and belief in the authority of church teachings. It has a rich history that includes its role in the formation of Western Christianity, its significant influence on culture and politics, and its division from Eastern Christianity during the East-West Schism.
Sacraments: Sacraments are religious rites recognized as of particular importance and significance in Christianity, believed to be outward and visible signs of inward spiritual realities. They are a means through which believers receive grace, connecting them with the divine. The understanding and number of sacraments vary across different Christian traditions, reflecting theological differences in beliefs about their role and significance.
Transubstantiation: Transubstantiation is the theological concept that, during the celebration of the Eucharist, the bread and wine used in the sacrament become the actual body and blood of Jesus Christ, while retaining their appearances. This doctrine is central to the understanding of the Eucharist as a sacrament and reflects the belief in Christ's real presence in the elements, distinguishing certain Christian traditions from others.
Western Christendom: Western Christendom refers to the cultural and religious community that emerged in Western Europe during the Middle Ages, characterized by the influence of the Roman Catholic Church and a shared Christian faith. This community played a crucial role in shaping European identity, politics, and society from roughly the 5th century until the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century, when significant divisions began to arise.