☸️Religions of Asia Unit 4 – Philosophical Concepts in Asian Religions

Key Philosophical Concepts

• Dharma encompasses religious and moral laws that govern individual conduct in Hinduism and Buddhism
• Karma is the spiritual principle of cause and effect where intent and actions influence the future of an individual's reincarnated lives
  • Positive karma accrues from good deeds and virtuous living (generosity, self-discipline)
  • Negative karma accumulates from bad actions and vices (violence, greed)
• Samsara refers to the cycle of death and rebirth to which life in the material world is bound
• Moksha or Nirvana is the liberation from samsara, the cycle of rebirth, that is the ultimate aim of spiritual practices
• Atman is the eternal, unchanging self or soul in Hinduism that is ultimately identified with Brahman, the supreme universal soul
• Anatta is the Buddhist doctrine that denies the existence of any unchanging, permanent soul, self or essence
• Yin and Yang in Chinese philosophy are opposite but complementary forces that make up all aspects and phenomena of life (light-dark, male-female)
• Wuwei is the Taoist concept of effortless action, of acting in accordance with the Tao and not forcing things

Historical Context and Origins

• The Vedic period (1500-500 BCE) saw the composition of the Vedas, the oldest scriptures of Hinduism
  • The Upanishads, philosophical texts that form the theoretical basis for Hinduism, were composed during this time
• The Sramana movement (5th century BCE) gave rise to Jainism and Buddhism in India as non-Vedic alternatives
• Siddhartha Gautama, the historical Buddha, lived and taught in northeastern India sometime between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE
• Confucianism and Taoism emerged in China during the 6th to 4th centuries BCE, a time of political upheaval and social change
  • Confucius (551-479 BCE) emphasized personal and governmental morality, correctness of social relationships, and justice
  • Laozi, a contemporary of Confucius, is traditionally regarded as the founder of Taoism and author of the Tao Te Ching
• Zen Buddhism developed in China (as Chan) around the 6th century CE and spread to Japan, Korea and Vietnam

Major Asian Religions Overview

• Hinduism is the world's oldest extant religion, originating in the Indus Valley Civilization
  • It encompasses a wide variety of traditions, beliefs and spiritual practices largely based on the Vedas
  • Central concepts include dharma, karma, samsara, moksha and yoga
• Buddhism is based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha) about the nature of suffering and the path to liberation
  • The Four Noble Truths encapsulate the Buddha's teachings: the truth of suffering, its cause, its cessation, and the path to its cessation
  • The Eightfold Path prescribes the way to end suffering: right view, resolve, speech, conduct, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, concentration
• Jainism teaches that the way to liberation is to live lives of harmlessness and renunciation
  • The central tenet is non-violence (ahimsa) towards all living beings
  • Jain ascetics take five main vows: non-violence, truth, not stealing, celibacy, and non-attachment
• Confucianism is a system of thought and behavior based on the teachings of Confucius
  • It emphasizes personal and governmental morality, correctness of social relationships, justice and sincerity
  • Key virtues include ren (benevolence, humaneness), yi (righteousness), li (proper rite), zhi (knowledge), xin (integrity)
• Taoism (or Daoism) is based on the philosophical works the Tao Te Ching and Zhuangzi
  • The Tao is the source, pattern and substance of everything that exists
  • Taoist practices include meditation, feng shui, fortune telling, and reading of oracle bones

Shared Themes and Principles

• The concept of a universal law or truth that governs all things is common (Dharma in Hinduism, Tao in Taoism)
• The idea of an endless cycle of birth, death and rebirth from which one seeks liberation is shared by Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism
  • This is driven by karma, the moral law of cause and effect
• The practice of meditation and yoga as means to spiritual growth and enlightenment is advocated by many traditions
• Virtues such as non-violence, truthfulness, non-stealing, chastity and non-attachment are highly valued
• There is a strong emphasis on moral and ethical living as the path to spiritual progress and ultimate liberation
• The material world is often seen as illusory or inferior to a higher spiritual reality
• Detachment from worldly desires and possessions is encouraged as a means to spiritual freedom
• Teachers and gurus play a central role in transmitting spiritual knowledge and guidance

Unique Philosophical Contributions

• The Bhagavad Gita, a key Hindu text, introduces the concept of selfless service (seva) as a path to spiritual liberation
  • It also elaborates on the different yogas or paths to moksha: karma yoga (path of action), bhakti yoga (path of devotion), jnana yoga (path of knowledge)
• The Buddhist concept of dependent origination (pratityasamutpada) states that all phenomena arise in dependence upon other phenomena
  • This is often explained through the image of the Twelve Links of Dependent Origination
• The Jain doctrine of anekantavada states that reality is perceived differently from diverse points of view, and that no single point of view is the complete truth
  • This is often illustrated through the parable of the Blind Men and an Elephant
• Confucianism emphasizes the importance of education and study as a means of moral self-cultivation
  • The Confucian concept of filial piety (xiao) stresses the virtues of respect and obedience to one's parents and elders
• Taoism's unique contributions include the concepts of wuwei (effortless action), ziran (naturalness, spontaneity) and pu (simplicity)
  • The Taoist principle of "reversal" teaches that things turn into their opposites (weakness becomes strength, failure leads to success)

Influence on Asian Cultures

• Hinduism has profoundly shaped Indian culture, influencing its art, architecture, literature, philosophy, and social customs
  • The caste system, while not an inherent part of Hinduism, has been a major feature of Indian society
  • Hindu festivals like Diwali, Holi and Navaratri are widely celebrated cultural events
• Buddhism has had a significant impact on the cultures of Sri Lanka, Thailand, Myanmar, Laos, Cambodia, and Tibet
  • Buddhist monasteries have been centers of learning, art and culture (Nalanda, Vikramashila in India; Shaolin in China)
  • Buddhist principles have influenced literature (Jataka tales), art (Buddhist sculpture, thangka paintings), and architecture (stupas, pagodas)
• Confucianism was the official ideology of the Chinese state for much of its history, shaping its political, legal and educational systems
  • The Confucian emphasis on filial piety and ancestor worship reinforced the patriarchal family structure
  • The imperial examination system based on Confucian texts was a major path to social mobility in ancient China
• Taoism has been a major influence on Chinese art, poetry, and aesthetics
  • Taoist principles of simplicity, spontaneity and harmony with nature are reflected in Chinese landscape painting and poetry
  • Taoist practices like Tai Chi and Qigong have become popular forms of exercise and stress reduction worldwide

Modern Interpretations and Practices

• Neo-Vedanta, developed by Swami Vivekananda and others in the late 19th century, presents Hinduism as a universal religion compatible with modern science
  • The practice of yoga has become a global phenomenon, often divorced from its spiritual roots
• Engaged Buddhism applies Buddhist principles to social and political activism, as exemplified by the Dalai Lama and Thich Nhat Hanh
  • Mindfulness meditation derived from Buddhist practices has been widely adopted for stress reduction and mental health
• New Confucianism is an intellectual movement that began in the early 20th century to revitalize Confucian thought for the modern era
  • Confucian principles continue to influence business practices and interpersonal relationships in East Asian societies
• Modern Taoism emphasizes health and longevity practices, such as Taoist yoga, martial arts, and traditional Chinese medicine
  • Taoist concepts like yin-yang and the Five Elements have been popularized through alternative medicine and pop culture
• Jainism has been influential in the Indian independence movement through its emphasis on non-violence
  • Jain principles of vegetarianism and animal welfare have contributed to the growth of the animal rights movement

Comparative Analysis with Western Philosophy

• While Western philosophy has traditionally emphasized logic, reason, and analysis, Eastern philosophy often stresses intuition, direct experience, and holistic understanding
  • However, there are also traditions of logic and analysis in Eastern philosophy (Indian nyaya, Buddhist logic) and of mysticism and spirituality in Western thought (Neoplatonism, Christian mysticism)
• Eastern philosophies generally view the self as an illusion or a temporary construct, while Western thought has traditionally affirmed the reality and importance of the individual self
  • However, there are also critiques of the self in Western philosophy (David Hume, Derek Parfit) and affirmations of the self in Eastern traditions (Atman in Hinduism)
• Eastern thought often emphasizes the unity and interconnectedness of all things, while Western philosophy has tended to stress duality and distinction (mind-body, subject-object)
  • However, there are also holistic philosophies in the West (Spinoza, process philosophy) and dualistic views in the East (Samkhya school of Hinduism)
• Eastern philosophies typically see the world as cyclical and ever-changing, while Western thought has often viewed it as linear and progressing towards an end goal
  • However, there are cyclical views of history in the West (Nietzsche's eternal recurrence) and linear views in the East (Buddhist concept of the decline of the Dharma)
• Eastern traditions generally hold that the ultimate goal of life is liberation from suffering and the cycle of rebirth, while Western thought has typically affirmed the value of the individual life and the pursuit of happiness
  • However, there are also philosophies of renunciation and asceticism in the West (Stoicism, monasticism) and affirmations of worldly life in the East (Confucian emphasis on social harmony)