Glossary

1.2 Historical Overview of Religion in Literature

5 min read•july 30, 2024

Religion has profoundly shaped literature throughout history. From ancient epics to modern novels, religious themes, values, and conflicts have inspired countless works across cultures. This interplay between faith and fiction reflects humanity's enduring quest for meaning and transcendence.

Literature has also influenced religious thought and practice. Sacred texts, mystical poetry, and spiritual allegories have deepened believers' understanding and sparked new interpretations. This dynamic relationship between religion and literature continues to evolve, reflecting changing beliefs and social contexts.

Religion in Literature Across Cultures

Ancient Religious Themes in Literature

Top images from around the web for Ancient Religious Themes in Literature

1 of 3

Top images from around the web for Ancient Religious Themes in Literature

1 of 3
  • Religious themes present in like the (Mesopotamia), (India), and (Judeo-Christian) incorporating religious elements into narratives
  • These works often explore the relationship between humans and the divine, the nature of the afterlife, and the role of religion in shaping moral and ethical values
    • The Epic of Gilgamesh includes themes of the search for immortality and the role of the gods in human affairs
    • The Vedas contain hymns, rituals, and philosophical discussions related to Hinduism
    • The Bible presents narratives, laws, and prophecies that form the basis of the Judeo-Christian religious tradition

Medieval and Renaissance Religious Literature

  • In medieval Europe, Christian beliefs and values dominated literature, reflected in works like and
    • Dante's Divine Comedy explores the afterlife and the soul's journey towards God, with a strong emphasis on Catholic theology
    • Chaucer's Canterbury Tales includes religious themes and characters, such as the Parson and the Monk, reflecting the centrality of the Church in medieval society
  • The Renaissance saw a shift towards more secular themes, but religious influences remained significant in works like (Christian epic) and (spiritual allegory)

Modern and Contemporary Religious Themes

  • In the 19th and 20th centuries, writers like (The Brothers Karamazov), (Anna Karenina), and (The Waste Land) explored complex religious and spiritual questions
    • Dostoevsky's works often grapple with questions of faith, doubt, and the existence of God
    • Tolstoy's novels explore themes of spiritual awakening and the search for meaning in life
    • T.S. Eliot's poetry incorporates elements of Christian symbolism and theology
  • continues to engage with religious themes, often reflecting the increasing religious diversity of modern societies
    • Works by authors like (The Satanic Verses) and Marilynne Robinson (Gilead) explore religious themes from diverse perspectives, including Islam and Protestant Christianity

Religious Influence on Literary Forms

Judeo-Christian and Islamic Traditions

  • The has shaped Western literature, influencing genres like the morality play (Everyman), the religious epic (Paradise Lost), and the spiritual autobiography (Augustine's Confessions)
  • , including poetry and prose, has been deeply influenced by the and the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad
    • and explore Sufi mystical themes
    • The (One Thousand and One Nights) includes stories with Islamic religious and moral themes

Eastern Religious Traditions

  • Hindu and Buddhist religious traditions have shaped Indian and Southeast Asian literature
    • The and the are that incorporate religious themes and motifs
    • The are Buddhist stories that illustrate moral and spiritual lessons
  • and have influenced the development of Chinese literature, particularly in poetry (, ) and philosophical prose ()

Syncretic Literary Forms

  • The interaction between different religious traditions has led to the emergence of
    • The Sikh scripture incorporates elements of Hindu and Islamic poetry
    • The poetry of blends ideas from Hinduism and Islam, emphasizing the unity of the divine

Impact of Religious Change on Literature

Protestant Reformation and Catholic Counter-Reformation

  • The led to a proliferation of religious writing in vernacular languages, emphasizing individual interpretation of scripture
    • Martin Luther's translation of the Bible into German had a significant impact on the development of the German language and literature
  • The led to a resurgence of religious literature defending and promoting Catholic doctrine
    • Works by Spanish mystics like (Dark Night of the Soul) and (The Interior Castle) explored spiritual themes and experiences
  • The rise of in 17th-century England influenced English literature, with writers like John Milton (Paradise Lost) and John Bunyan (The Pilgrim's Progress) reflecting Puritan religious and moral values

Religious Movements in Asia

  • The in medieval India emphasized devotion and personal connection to God, influencing devotional poetry in languages like Hindi (Kabir), Bengali (Chaitanya), and Marathi (Tukaram)
  • Islamic revival movements in the 18th and 19th centuries, such as the (Arabia) and the (South Asia), led to a resurgence of Islamic religious literature promoting orthodox religious values and practices
    • The works of and reflect the influence of these movements on Islamic thought and literature

Patronage and Literary Production

Medieval and Early Modern Patronage

  • In medieval Europe, the Catholic Church commissioned works like illuminated manuscripts (), hagiographies (), and religious plays ()
  • The Ottoman Empire's patronage led to the flourishing of Islamic poetry and prose in the 16th and 17th centuries
    • The and the were produced under the patronage of the Ottoman court
    • The Ottoman sultans also commissioned religious texts, such as the Quran and hadith collections
  • In Mughal India, the patronage of the Mughal emperors led to the production of Persian and Urdu literature, including works like the (history of Akbar's reign) and the (Sufi epic poem)

Religious Institutions and Literary Production

  • and temples in East Asia produced a large body of Buddhist literature, including sutras (), commentaries, and hagiographies
    • The , discovered in a cave library in China, include a vast collection of Buddhist texts and other religious literature
  • In medieval Europe, monasteries and cathedral schools were centers of learning and literary production, with monks and clerics creating religious texts, as well as preserving and copying classical works

Modern State Patronage and Religious Literature

  • In the 20th century, state patronage of literature in communist countries like the Soviet Union and China often led to the suppression or critique of religious themes
    • Socialist realism, the official artistic doctrine of the Soviet Union, emphasized the promotion of communist values and the criticism of religion as a tool of oppression
    • During the Cultural Revolution in China, religious literature was often banned or destroyed, with state-sponsored literature focusing on revolutionary themes and the cult of personality surrounding Mao Zedong

Key Terms to Review (59)

19th century literature: 19th century literature refers to the body of written works produced during the 1800s, characterized by a diversity of genres, styles, and themes that often reflected the social, political, and cultural changes of the time. This period saw the rise of realism, romanticism, and naturalism, all of which engaged with religious themes and questioned established beliefs, contributing to a rich dialogue between religion and literature.
20th century literature: 20th century literature refers to the diverse body of written works produced during the 1900s, encompassing various genres, styles, and movements. This era is marked by a significant shift in literary themes, reflecting the complexities of modern life, including the impact of war, industrialization, and cultural change. It often explores existential questions and incorporates elements of stream-of-consciousness, fragmented narratives, and a questioning of traditional forms and values.
Akbarnama: The akbarnama is a historical text documenting the life and reign of Akbar, the third Mughal emperor of India, written by Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak in the late 16th century. This text not only chronicles Akbar's achievements and policies but also serves as a significant literary work that reflects the intertwining of religion, culture, and politics during his reign.
Ancient literature: Ancient literature refers to the body of written works that were produced in the early civilizations, often reflecting the cultural, religious, and philosophical beliefs of those societies. This genre encompasses various forms such as epics, poems, religious texts, and historical accounts that have shaped human thought and artistic expression over millennia.
Arabian Nights: Arabian Nights, also known as One Thousand and One Nights, is a collection of Middle Eastern folk tales compiled during the Islamic Golden Age. The stories, told by the clever Scheherazade to delay her execution, encompass themes of adventure, morality, and the supernatural, reflecting a rich tapestry of cultural and religious influences in literature.
Attar's Conference of the Birds: Attar's Conference of the Birds is a Persian poem written by Farid ud-Din Attar in the 12th century, which presents a mystical allegory about a group of birds searching for their king, Simorgh. The poem illustrates the spiritual journey and the quest for self-discovery, reflecting key themes in Sufism and the intersection of religion and literature during this period.
Bhakti movement: The bhakti movement was a spiritual and social reform movement that emerged in medieval India, emphasizing personal devotion to a singular god and the importance of a direct, emotional connection with the divine. This movement challenged established social hierarchies and rituals, promoting a more inclusive approach to spirituality that appealed to people across various castes and communities, which is significant in understanding the broader narrative of religion in literature.
Book of Kells: The Book of Kells is an illuminated manuscript created by Celtic monks around the 9th century, renowned for its intricate artwork and detailed illustrations of the four Gospels. This masterpiece of medieval art showcases the fusion of Christian theology and Celtic culture, serving as a vital historical artifact that reflects the spiritual and artistic expressions of its time.
Buddhist Monasteries: Buddhist monasteries are spiritual communities where monks and nuns live, practice, and study the teachings of Buddhism. These institutions serve as centers for religious training, meditation, and preservation of Buddhist texts, and they play a crucial role in the broader spread and understanding of Buddhist philosophy and culture throughout history.
Buddhist Scriptures: Buddhist scriptures refer to the sacred texts of Buddhism that encompass a wide range of teachings attributed to the Buddha and his followers. These scriptures include various collections, such as the Tripitaka (Pali Canon), Mahayana Sutras, and Tibetan texts, which serve as foundational documents for Buddhist beliefs, practices, and philosophy.
Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress: Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress is an allegorical tale published in 1678 that follows the journey of a character named Christian as he seeks salvation and navigates obstacles on his path to the Celestial City. This work stands as one of the most significant pieces of religious literature, illustrating the struggles of faith and the transformative power of spiritual pilgrimage.
Catholic Counter-Reformation: The Catholic Counter-Reformation was a period of Catholic revival that began in the late 16th century as a response to the Protestant Reformation. It aimed to reform the Church from within, reaffirming Catholic doctrines, and countering the spread of Protestantism through a series of reforms, new religious orders, and the Council of Trent.
Chaucer's Canterbury Tales: Chaucer's Canterbury Tales is a collection of stories written in the late 14th century by Geoffrey Chaucer, depicting a diverse group of pilgrims traveling to the shrine of Thomas Becket in Canterbury. This work is significant in the historical context of religion in literature as it reflects the complexities of faith, social class, and morality during a time of great religious change in England.
Confucianism: Confucianism is a philosophical and ethical system based on the teachings of Confucius, focusing on moral integrity, social harmony, and the importance of family and education. It has profoundly influenced Chinese culture and society, shaping ideas about governance, personal conduct, and interpersonal relationships throughout history.
Contemporary literature: Contemporary literature refers to written works produced in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, reflecting the complexities and nuances of modern society. It encompasses a wide array of genres, styles, and themes, often addressing current social issues, cultural conflicts, and the human experience in an increasingly globalized world. This form of literature is characterized by its exploration of identity, technology, and existential themes, often breaking traditional narrative structures.
Dante's Divine Comedy: Dante's Divine Comedy is an epic poem written by Dante Alighieri in the early 14th century, exploring themes of sin, redemption, and the soul's journey toward God. The work is structured into three parts: Inferno, Purgatorio, and Paradiso, each representing a different stage of the afterlife and reflecting the theological beliefs of its time.
Deobandi Movement: The Deobandi Movement is a reformist Islamic movement that originated in the Indian subcontinent in the late 19th century, specifically from the Darul Uloom Deoband seminary established in 1866. It seeks to promote a return to traditional Islamic teachings and practices while opposing modernist interpretations and innovations within Islam, highlighting the importance of religious education.
Divan of Hafez: The Divan of Hafez is a collection of Persian poetry written by the renowned 14th-century poet Hafez, celebrated for its lyrical beauty and depth of emotion. This work is a cornerstone of Persian literature and reflects profound themes of love, spirituality, and mysticism, making it a significant part of the dialogue between religion and literature throughout history.
Dostoevsky: Fyodor Dostoevsky was a Russian novelist and philosopher known for his exploration of deep psychological and moral dilemmas within the human experience. His works often grapple with themes of faith, suffering, and the nature of good and evil, making significant contributions to the intersection of religion and literature.
Du Fu: Du Fu was a prominent Chinese poet of the Tang dynasty, known for his deep compassion and social consciousness reflected in his poetry. His works often addressed themes of suffering, injustice, and the human condition, making him a key figure in the intersection of literature and societal issues during his time.
Dunhuang Manuscripts: The Dunhuang Manuscripts are a collection of texts discovered in the early 20th century in a cave near Dunhuang, China, that date from the 4th to the 11th centuries. These manuscripts are crucial for understanding the intersection of religion, culture, and literature along the Silk Road, as they include Buddhist scriptures, Daoist texts, and works of poetry and history.
Epic of Gilgamesh: The Epic of Gilgamesh is one of the oldest known pieces of literature, originating from ancient Mesopotamia. It follows the adventures of Gilgamesh, a historical king of Uruk, and explores themes of friendship, the human condition, and the quest for immortality. This epic not only reflects the religious beliefs of Mesopotamian culture but also provides insight into how ancient civilizations viewed life and death, paralleling elements found in other ancient texts.
Golden Legend: The Golden Legend is a collection of hagiographies, or biographies of saints, compiled by Jacobus de Voragine in the 13th century. This work became one of the most popular texts in medieval Europe, influencing both religious thought and literature by presenting the lives of saints in an engaging narrative style that inspired devotion and storytelling across cultures.
Guru Granth Sahib: The Guru Granth Sahib is the central religious scripture of Sikhism, regarded as the eternal Guru by Sikhs. It is a collection of hymns and writings by Sikh Gurus and other saints from various backgrounds, emphasizing the importance of devotion, equality, and the oneness of God, making it a vital text in the historical development of religion in literature.
Hindu Epics: Hindu epics are ancient Indian narratives that form a significant part of Hindu literature, encompassing moral lessons, philosophical insights, and the adventures of deities and heroes. These texts, primarily the Mahabharata and Ramayana, are not only crucial in understanding Hindu culture and religious practices but also serve as key literary works that have influenced countless other narratives across different cultures.
Islamic Literature: Islamic literature encompasses a wide range of written works produced within the Islamic cultural and religious context, including poetry, prose, religious texts, and philosophical treatises. This body of literature reflects the beliefs, practices, and values of Islam, often intertwining themes of faith, morality, and spirituality with rich storytelling traditions that have influenced various literary genres throughout history.
Jataka tales: Jataka tales are a collection of stories about the previous lives of the Buddha, illustrating moral lessons and the importance of virtues like compassion and wisdom. These narratives are rooted in the Buddhist tradition and serve as a means to convey ethical teachings, highlighting the cycle of samsara, or rebirth, that underpins Buddhist belief.
Judeo-christian tradition: The Judeo-Christian tradition refers to the shared religious beliefs, ethical principles, and cultural values that have emerged from Judaism and Christianity. This tradition emphasizes monotheism, the importance of sacred texts, moral teachings, and the concept of a covenant between God and humanity, serving as a foundational influence on Western literature and thought.
Kabir: Kabir was a 15th-century Indian poet-saint whose verses and teachings challenged religious orthodoxy and promoted a syncretic approach to spirituality, blending elements of Hinduism and Islam. His work is significant in the historical context of religious literature, as it reflects the tensions between different faiths and emphasizes personal devotion over ritualistic practices.
Li Bai: Li Bai was a renowned Chinese poet of the Tang Dynasty, celebrated for his romantic and imaginative style of writing. His work often explores themes of nature, friendship, and the transcendent experiences of life, showcasing a deep connection between poetry and spirituality, reflecting the broader historical relationship between religion and literature in Chinese culture.
Mahabharata: The Mahabharata is one of the longest epic poems in the world, detailing the Kurukshetra War and the fates of the Kaurava and Pandava princes. It serves not only as a narrative of conflict but also incorporates philosophical, ethical, and spiritual lessons that reflect the complexities of dharma (duty/righteousness) within Hindu culture.
Martin Luther's Bible Translation: Martin Luther's Bible translation is the rendering of the Bible into German by the theologian Martin Luther in the early 16th century. This translation was significant as it made the scriptures accessible to ordinary German speakers, fostering a deeper connection to religious texts and sparking a cultural and religious transformation during the Reformation period.
Masnavi of Rumi: The Masnavi of Rumi, also known simply as the Masnavi, is a monumental poetic work composed by the Persian Sufi mystic Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Rumi in the 13th century. This extensive poem is written in Persian and consists of six volumes, exploring themes of divine love, spirituality, and the journey of the soul toward God, intertwining religious teachings with narrative storytelling.
Medieval literature: Medieval literature refers to the body of written works produced during the Middle Ages, roughly from the 5th to the late 15th century, encompassing a diverse range of genres and themes, often intertwined with the religious and cultural context of the time. This period saw the emergence of important literary forms such as epic poetry, allegory, and romance, deeply influenced by Christian theology and societal values. Many medieval texts reflect the era's beliefs about the afterlife, morality, and human nature, which are crucial for understanding both literary tradition and historical context.
Medieval patronage: Medieval patronage refers to the system where wealthy individuals, such as nobles and church officials, provided financial support and resources to artists, writers, and scholars during the medieval period. This relationship was essential in the production of religious and literary works, as patrons would often commission specific projects that aligned with their values and interests, thus influencing the content and themes of the art and literature created.
Milton's Paradise Lost: Milton's Paradise Lost is an epic poem published in 1667 that explores the biblical story of the Fall of Man, depicting the rebellion of Satan and the expulsion of Adam and Eve from the Garden of Eden. This work intricately weaves together themes of free will, obedience, and divine justice, while also incorporating numerous biblical allusions and motifs that resonate throughout Western literature. Its profound influence extends beyond its narrative, impacting theological discourse and literary tradition across centuries.
Mughal India Literature: Mughal India literature refers to the body of literary works produced during the Mughal Empire, which flourished from the early 16th to the 18th century in the Indian subcontinent. This era is characterized by a blend of Persian, Arabic, and local Indian languages, with themes often intertwining religion, culture, and politics, reflecting the empire's rich diversity and complex social fabric.
Muhammad Iqbal: Muhammad Iqbal was a prominent philosopher, poet, and politician in British India who is widely regarded as one of the most important figures in Urdu literature. His work emphasized the spiritual and intellectual awakening of Muslims and played a pivotal role in inspiring the movement for Pakistan's independence. Iqbal's poetry often reflects his deep engagement with themes of religion, identity, and self-discovery.
Mystery plays: Mystery plays are a form of medieval drama that emerged in the late Middle Ages, focusing on biblical events and the lives of saints. These plays were often performed by guilds or communities during religious festivals and aimed to educate the audience about Christian beliefs through storytelling. They served as a vital connection between religion and literature, highlighting the cultural importance of faith in the lives of people during this period.
Ottoman Empire Patronage: Ottoman Empire patronage refers to the system of support and sponsorship provided by the Ottoman rulers to artists, writers, and religious institutions during the empire's long history. This practice not only fostered the flourishing of arts and literature but also served to legitimize the sultan's power and promote Islamic culture throughout the empire.
Padmavat: Padmavat is a 16th-century epic poem written by the Sufi poet Malik Muhammad Jayasi, which tells the story of Rani Padmavati, a legendary queen known for her beauty and valor. The poem intertwines themes of love, honor, and sacrifice, illustrating the cultural and religious context of medieval India, particularly in relation to the impact of Hindu and Islamic interactions in literature.
Protestant Reformation: The Protestant Reformation was a major religious movement in the 16th century that sought to reform the practices and beliefs of the Roman Catholic Church, leading to the establishment of various Protestant denominations. This movement was fueled by a combination of theological debates, the desire for greater personal spirituality, and political factors, ultimately reshaping the religious landscape in Europe and influencing literature during and after this period.
Puritanism: Puritanism was a religious reform movement that arose in the late 16th and 17th centuries, primarily within the Church of England, advocating for a return to what its followers considered a more 'pure' form of worship and church governance. The movement emphasized personal piety, moral rigor, and an intense focus on scripture, influencing various aspects of culture, literature, and society in early America and beyond.
Quran: The Quran is the holy scripture of Islam, believed to be the literal word of God as revealed to the Prophet Muhammad over a span of approximately 23 years. It serves as a foundational text that shapes Islamic beliefs, practices, and law, influencing both religious life and literature throughout history. The Quran's themes, narratives, and poetic language have not only guided Muslim spirituality but have also significantly impacted the broader landscape of religious literature.
Ramayana: The Ramayana is an ancient Indian epic that narrates the life and adventures of Lord Rama, an incarnation of the god Vishnu. It is not only a foundational text of Hindu literature but also explores themes of duty, righteousness, and devotion. The narrative significantly influences cultural practices and religious beliefs, shaping moral values and societal norms in various communities.
Renaissance literature: Renaissance literature refers to the body of written works produced during the Renaissance, a cultural movement in Europe from the 14th to the 17th century that emphasized a revival of classical learning and a focus on humanism. This period saw significant advancements in art, philosophy, and science, influencing literary forms and themes that explored the human experience, individualism, and the relationship between humanity and divinity.
Rumi's Masnavi: Rumi's Masnavi, also known as the Masnavi-i Ma'navi, is a monumental work of Persian poetry written by the 13th-century Sufi mystic Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Rumi. This extensive poem consists of six volumes and delves into spiritual themes, moral lessons, and the human experience through stories and parables, illustrating Rumi's profound understanding of love, faith, and the quest for divine truth.
Salman Rushdie: Salman Rushdie is a British-Indian author known for his influential works that intertwine magical realism, history, and political commentary, particularly regarding themes of identity and religion. His most notable novel, 'The Satanic Verses', sparked significant controversy and discussions about freedom of expression and the intersection of literature and religion.
Shah Waliullah Dehlawi: Shah Waliullah Dehlawi was an influential 18th-century Islamic scholar and reformer from India, known for his efforts to reconcile Islamic teachings with contemporary issues and his advocacy for a revival of Islamic thought. His writings and teachings played a significant role in shaping the discourse on religion and literature, particularly in the context of Muslim identity and cultural revival during a period of colonial encroachment.
St. John of the Cross: St. John of the Cross was a Spanish mystic, poet, and theologian of the 16th century, renowned for his writings on the soul's journey towards God through love and suffering. His works are foundational to Christian mysticism and explore themes of spiritual transformation, emphasizing the importance of detachment from worldly desires in order to achieve union with the divine.
St. Teresa of Avila: St. Teresa of Avila was a prominent Spanish mystic, religious reformer, and author of the 16th century, known for her significant contributions to Christian spirituality and the Carmelite Order. Her works emphasize the importance of prayer and personal experience of God, marking a key moment in the intersection of religion and literature during the Renaissance period.
Syncretic literary forms: Syncretic literary forms refer to the blending and fusion of different literary traditions, genres, or cultural elements to create new and unique works. This phenomenon often arises in contexts where diverse cultural or religious influences interact, leading to innovative storytelling techniques and themes that reflect a synthesis of beliefs and practices.
T.S. Eliot: T.S. Eliot was a prominent American-British poet, essayist, and playwright known for his influential works that explore themes of spirituality, modernity, and existentialism. His writings often reflect the complexities of religion and its role in literature, making him a crucial figure in understanding the intersection of these two fields.
Tao Te Ching: The Tao Te Ching is a fundamental text in Taoism, attributed to Laozi, that emphasizes living in harmony with the Tao, or the Way. This ancient Chinese classic comprises 81 chapters of poetic aphorisms, exploring themes such as simplicity, humility, and the natural order of the universe. It has influenced not just religious thought but also literature, philosophy, and art throughout history.
Taoism: Taoism is a philosophical and religious tradition originating in ancient China, centered around living in harmony with the Tao, which is understood as the fundamental principle that is the source of all existence. It emphasizes simplicity, spontaneity, and connection with nature, influencing literature through its themes of balance, mysticism, and the pursuit of inner peace.
The Bible: The Bible is a collection of sacred texts considered holy by various religious traditions, primarily Christianity and Judaism. It consists of the Old Testament and the New Testament, serving as a foundational source for religious teachings, moral guidance, and cultural narratives.
The Vedas: The Vedas are a large body of ancient texts originating from the Indian subcontinent, which form the foundation of Hinduism. They consist of four main collections: Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda, and contain hymns, rituals, and philosophical teachings that reflect early religious beliefs and practices in the context of society and culture.
Tolstoy: Leo Tolstoy was a Russian author and philosopher, renowned for his epic novels such as 'War and Peace' and 'Anna Karenina', which explore deep moral and existential themes. His works reflect a profound engagement with spirituality and ethics, often examining the intersection of religion and human experience in literature.
Wahhabi Movement: The Wahhabi Movement is a reformist Islamic movement founded by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab in the 18th century, primarily in what is now Saudi Arabia. It emphasizes a return to what its followers consider the purest form of Islam by advocating for strict monotheism and rejecting practices considered innovations or polytheistic. This movement has played a significant role in shaping modern interpretations of Islam and has influenced both religious literature and broader cultural contexts.
© 2024 Fiveable Inc. All rights reserved.
AP® and SAT® are trademarks registered by the College Board, which is not affiliated with, and does not endorse this website.
Back
Practice QuizGlossary
Practice QuizGlossary
Next guide