👫🏿African Diaspora Studies Unit 4 – Post-Emancipation Struggle for Equality

Key Events and Timeline

• Emancipation Proclamation issued by President Abraham Lincoln on January 1, 1863 declared all slaves in Confederate states free
• 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution ratified in December 1865 abolished slavery and involuntary servitude
• Reconstruction era (1865-1877) aimed to rebuild the South and grant civil rights to freed slaves
  • Freedmen's Bureau established in 1865 to provide assistance to former slaves
  • Civil Rights Act of 1866 granted citizenship and equal rights to all persons born in the United States
• 14th Amendment ratified in 1868 granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the United States
• 15th Amendment ratified in 1870 prohibited denial of voting rights based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude
• Compromise of 1877 ended Reconstruction and led to the withdrawal of federal troops from the South
• Jim Crow laws enacted in the late 19th and early 20th centuries enforced racial segregation and discrimination
• Great Migration (1916-1970) saw millions of African Americans move from the South to Northern, Midwestern, and Western states seeking better economic opportunities and social conditions

Major Figures and Movements

• Frederick Douglass (1818-1895) prominent abolitionist, orator, and writer advocated for civil rights and equality
• Booker T. Washington (1856-1915) educator and leader promoted vocational education and economic self-sufficiency for African Americans
  • Founded Tuskegee Institute in 1881 to provide practical education and training
• W.E.B. Du Bois (1868-1963) sociologist, writer, and civil rights activist advocated for full political, civil, and social rights for African Americans
  • Co-founded the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1909
• Ida B. Wells (1862-1931) journalist and activist led anti-lynching campaigns and fought for civil rights
• Marcus Garvey (1887-1940) founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) in 1914 promoting black pride, self-reliance, and repatriation to Africa
• Niagara Movement (1905-1909) precursor to the NAACP demanded full civil rights and an end to racial discrimination
• Harlem Renaissance (1920s-1930s) cultural movement celebrating African American art, literature, and music

Legal and Political Developments

• Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) U.S. Supreme Court decision upheld the constitutionality of racial segregation under the "separate but equal" doctrine
• Guinn v. United States (1915) U.S. Supreme Court struck down grandfather clauses used to disenfranchise African American voters
• Smith v. Allwright (1944) U.S. Supreme Court ruled that white-only primary elections were unconstitutional
• Brown v. Board of Education (1954) U.S. Supreme Court decision declared racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional
• Civil Rights Act of 1957 established the Civil Rights Commission to investigate violations of civil rights
• Voting Rights Act of 1965 prohibited racial discrimination in voting and provided federal oversight of elections
• Fair Housing Act of 1968 prohibited discrimination in the sale, rental, and financing of housing based on race, religion, or national origin
• Increasing African American political representation at local, state, and federal levels throughout the 20th century

Economic Challenges and Strategies

• Sharecropping system emerged after the Civil War trapping many African Americans in a cycle of debt and poverty
  • Landowners provided land, tools, and supplies in exchange for a share of the crop
• Convict leasing allowed states to lease prisoners to private companies for labor often subjecting African Americans to harsh conditions
• Black codes restricted African Americans' freedom of movement, employment, and economic opportunities
• Discriminatory lending practices and redlining limited African Americans' access to credit and homeownership
• Development of black-owned businesses and financial institutions (e.g., banks, insurance companies) to serve African American communities
• Formation of labor unions and organizations to advocate for fair wages and working conditions
  • Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters founded in 1925 by A. Philip Randolph
• Increasing African American entrepreneurship and business ownership in the 20th century

Social and Cultural Impacts

• Emergence of distinct African American cultural traditions in music (blues, jazz, gospel), literature, and art
• Harlem Renaissance celebrated African American culture and creativity in the 1920s and 1930s
  • Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston, and Duke Ellington among prominent figures
• Segregation in housing, public spaces, and transportation reinforced social and economic inequality
• Development of African American newspapers and media outlets to provide news and perspectives relevant to black communities
  • Chicago Defender, Pittsburgh Courier, and Ebony magazine
• Growth of African American churches as centers of community life, support, and activism
  • African Methodist Episcopal (AME) Church and Baptist denominations
• Increased participation in sports and entertainment as avenues for social mobility and recognition
  • Jackie Robinson broke baseball's color barrier in 1947
• Ongoing challenges of racism, discrimination, and violence in daily life

Education and Literacy Efforts

• Freedmen's Bureau established schools for former slaves during Reconstruction
• Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) founded to provide higher education opportunities for African Americans
  • Howard University (1867), Morehouse College (1867), and Spelman College (1881)
• Rosenwald Schools built in the early 20th century to improve education for African American children in the rural South
  • Partnership between Julius Rosenwald and Booker T. Washington
• Increased literacy rates among African Americans through community-based education programs and self-help initiatives
• Desegregation of public schools following the Brown v. Board of Education decision in 1954
  • Little Rock Nine integrated Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas, in 1957
• Continued disparities in educational resources and opportunities between predominantly white and predominantly black schools
• Development of African American studies programs in colleges and universities in the 1960s and 1970s

Community Building and Institutions

• African American churches served as centers of community life, support, and activism
  • Provided social services, education, and leadership development
• Mutual aid societies and fraternal organizations offered financial assistance and social support
  • Free African Society (1787) and Prince Hall Freemasonry
• National Association of Colored Women's Clubs (NACWC) founded in 1896 to promote women's rights and community service
• National Urban League founded in 1910 to promote economic empowerment and social welfare for African Americans
• Development of African American neighborhoods and communities (e.g., Harlem, Bronzeville) fostered a sense of solidarity and cultural identity
• Establishment of black-owned businesses and financial institutions to serve the needs of African American communities
  • North Carolina Mutual Life Insurance Company (1898) and Universal Life Insurance Company (1923)
• Growth of African American professional organizations and associations in various fields (e.g., medicine, law, education)

Ongoing Struggles and Legacy

• Persistent racial inequality and discrimination in various aspects of life (e.g., housing, employment, education, criminal justice)
• Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s fought for legal and social equality
  • Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955-1956), March on Washington (1963), and Selma to Montgomery marches (1965)
• Black Power movement of the 1960s and 1970s emphasized self-determination, cultural pride, and political activism
  • Black Panther Party and Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)
• Affirmative action policies implemented to address historical disadvantages and promote diversity in education and employment
• Ongoing efforts to address racial profiling, police brutality, and mass incarceration disproportionately affecting African American communities
  • Black Lives Matter movement founded in 2013 in response to the acquittal of Trayvon Martin's killer
• Continued contributions of African Americans to American culture, politics, and society in the face of adversity
• Legacy of resilience, resistance, and achievement in the struggle for equality and justice
  • Inspiration for future generations to continue the fight against racism and discrimination