🎢Principles of Physics II Unit 6 – Magnetism and Magnetic Fields

Fundamental Concepts of Magnetism

• Magnetism arises from the motion of electric charges and the intrinsic magnetic moments of subatomic particles
• Magnetic fields exert forces on moving charges and other magnetic fields
• Magnetic poles always occur in pairs (north and south) and cannot be separated like electric charges
• Magnetic field lines represent the direction and strength of the magnetic field at any point in space
• Magnetic flux ($\Phi_B$) measures the amount of magnetic field passing through a surface
  • Calculated using the equation $\Phi_B = \int \vec{B} \cdot d\vec{A}$
• Gauss's law for magnetism states that the net magnetic flux through any closed surface is always zero
• Ampère's law relates the magnetic field around a closed loop to the electric current passing through the loop
  • Expressed as $\oint \vec{B} \cdot d\vec{l} = \mu_0 I_{enc}$, where $\mu_0$ is the permeability of free space and $I_{enc}$ is the enclosed current

Magnetic Fields and Their Properties

• Magnetic fields are vector fields represented by the symbol $\vec{B}$ and measured in teslas (T) or gauss (G)
• The direction of a magnetic field is defined as the direction a north pole of a compass needle points when placed in the field
• Magnetic field lines never cross each other and form closed loops
• The strength of a magnetic field decreases with distance from the source
• Magnetic fields can be represented by field lines, with the density of lines indicating the strength of the field
• The Earth's magnetic field resembles that of a large bar magnet, with field lines extending from the south magnetic pole to the north magnetic pole
  • The Earth's magnetic poles do not coincide with its geographic poles
• Magnetic fields can be uniform (constant in magnitude and direction) or non-uniform (varying in magnitude and/or direction)

Sources of Magnetic Fields

• Moving electric charges, such as electric currents, generate magnetic fields
• Permanent magnets produce magnetic fields due to the alignment of magnetic moments of atoms within the material
• Electromagnets generate magnetic fields when an electric current flows through a coil of wire
  • The strength of the magnetic field can be increased by increasing the number of turns in the coil or the current flowing through it
• The Biot-Savart law describes the magnetic field generated by a current-carrying wire
  • $d\vec{B} = \frac{\mu_0}{4\pi} \frac{I d\vec{l} \times \hat{r}}{r^2}$, where $I$ is the current, $d\vec{l}$ is a small segment of the wire, and $\hat{r}$ is the unit vector pointing from the wire segment to the point of interest
• Ampère's law relates the magnetic field around a closed loop to the electric current passing through the loop
• Solenoids and toroidal coils produce strong, uniform magnetic fields inside the coil when a current is passed through them
• The magnetic field inside a solenoid is given by $B = \mu_0 n I$, where $n$ is the number of turns per unit length and $I$ is the current

Magnetic Forces on Moving Charges

• A moving charged particle experiences a force when placed in a magnetic field
• The magnetic force on a moving charge is perpendicular to both the magnetic field and the velocity of the charge
  • Described by the equation $\vec{F} = q\vec{v} \times \vec{B}$, where $q$ is the charge, $\vec{v}$ is the velocity, and $\vec{B}$ is the magnetic field
• The direction of the magnetic force is determined by the right-hand rule
• The magnitude of the magnetic force depends on the charge, velocity, magnetic field strength, and the angle between the velocity and magnetic field vectors
• Charged particles moving parallel to a magnetic field experience no force, while those moving perpendicular to the field experience the maximum force
• Magnetic fields can be used to guide and manipulate charged particle beams in applications such as cathode ray tubes (CRTs) and particle accelerators

Magnetic Forces on Current-Carrying Conductors

• A current-carrying wire placed in a magnetic field experiences a force
• The magnetic force on a current-carrying conductor is perpendicular to both the magnetic field and the direction of the current
  • Given by the equation $\vec{F} = I\vec{L} \times \vec{B}$, where $I$ is the current, $\vec{L}$ is the length vector of the conductor, and $\vec{B}$ is the magnetic field
• The direction of the force is determined by the right-hand rule
• The magnitude of the force depends on the current, length of the conductor, magnetic field strength, and the angle between the current and magnetic field vectors
• Parallel conductors carrying currents in the same direction attract each other, while those carrying currents in opposite directions repel each other
• Magnetic forces on current-carrying conductors are the basis for the operation of electric motors and loudspeakers
  • In an electric motor, the magnetic force on a current-carrying coil causes it to rotate, converting electrical energy into mechanical energy

Applications of Magnetism in Technology

• Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) uses strong magnetic fields and radio waves to create detailed images of the human body
  • Protons in the body's tissues align with the applied magnetic field and absorb and emit radio waves, providing information about the tissue structure
• Magnetic levitation (maglev) trains use powerful electromagnets to lift and propel the train above a guideway, reducing friction and allowing high-speed travel
• Hard disk drives (HDDs) store digital data using magnetic recording on a rapidly rotating disk coated with a magnetic material
  • Read/write heads use magnetic fields to read and write data on the disk surface
• Transformers use magnetic coupling between coils to step up or step down alternating current (AC) voltages for efficient power transmission and distribution
• Electromagnetic locks use an electromagnet to secure a door when an electric current is applied, and release the door when the current is removed
• Magnetometers measure the strength and direction of magnetic fields and are used in applications such as navigation, geophysical surveys, and space exploration
• Particle accelerators use magnetic fields to guide and accelerate charged particles to high energies for research in physics, chemistry, and materials science

Electromagnetic Induction

• Electromagnetic induction is the production of an electromotive force (emf) in a conductor by a changing magnetic flux
• Faraday's law of induction states that the induced emf in a closed loop is equal to the negative rate of change of the magnetic flux through the loop
  • Expressed as $\mathcal{E} = -\frac{d\Phi_B}{dt}$, where $\mathcal{E}$ is the induced emf and $\Phi_B$ is the magnetic flux
• Lenz's law states that the direction of the induced emf is such that it opposes the change in magnetic flux that produced it
• Motional emf is induced when a conductor moves through a magnetic field, as described by the equation $\mathcal{E} = Blv$, where $B$ is the magnetic field strength, $l$ is the length of the conductor, and $v$ is the velocity of the conductor
• Generators and alternators use electromagnetic induction to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy
  • A coil of wire rotates in a magnetic field, inducing an alternating current in the coil
• Transformers use electromagnetic induction to step up or step down AC voltages
  • Two coils are wound around a common iron core, and a changing current in the primary coil induces a voltage in the secondary coil
• Eddy currents are induced currents in conducting materials that arise due to changing magnetic fields
  • These currents can cause heating and energy losses in transformers and other devices

Magnetic Materials and Domains

• Magnetic materials can be classified as diamagnetic, paramagnetic, or ferromagnetic based on their response to external magnetic fields
• Diamagnetic materials have no unpaired electrons and are weakly repelled by magnetic fields (bismuth, copper, water)
• Paramagnetic materials have unpaired electrons and are weakly attracted to magnetic fields (aluminum, platinum, oxygen)
• Ferromagnetic materials have strong magnetic properties due to the alignment of magnetic moments in magnetic domains (iron, nickel, cobalt)
  • Magnetic domains are regions within a ferromagnetic material where the magnetic moments of atoms are aligned in the same direction
• The alignment of magnetic domains can be influenced by external magnetic fields, temperature, and mechanical stress
• Ferromagnetic materials can be magnetized by placing them in a strong external magnetic field, causing the magnetic domains to align
• The magnetic properties of ferromagnetic materials depend on their composition, microstructure, and temperature
  • Above the Curie temperature, ferromagnetic materials become paramagnetic as thermal energy disrupts the alignment of magnetic moments
• Soft magnetic materials (iron) are easily magnetized and demagnetized, while hard magnetic materials (neodymium) retain their magnetization and are used to create permanent magnets
• Hysteresis is the dependence of a ferromagnetic material's magnetization on its magnetic history
  • The hysteresis loop represents the relationship between the applied magnetic field and the resulting magnetization of the material