14.3 Process Theories of Motivation
4 min read•june 25, 2024
Motivation theories explain what drives employee behavior and how to enhance performance. Process theories focus on the cognitive aspects of motivation, examining how individuals make decisions about their actions in the workplace.
Key process theories include operant conditioning, , , and . These frameworks provide managers with practical tools to boost motivation through , fair treatment, clear goals, and aligning efforts with valued outcomes.
Process Theories of Motivation
Components of process motivation theories
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- developed by suggests behavior is a function of its consequences and can be shaped through reinforcement and
- Reinforcement strengthens behavior through positive reinforcement (adding a pleasant stimulus such as praise) or negative reinforcement (removing an unpleasant stimulus such as an undesirable task)
- Punishment weakens behavior through positive punishment (adding an unpleasant stimulus such as a reprimand) or negative punishment (removing a pleasant stimulus such as a privilege)
- Equity theory proposed by posits that employees compare their to others and inequity leads to tension and motivation to restore balance
- Inputs include factors such as effort, skills, and experience while outputs encompass rewards, recognition, and status
- Underrewarded employees may decrease inputs (reduce effort) or seek more outputs (ask for a raise) to restore equity
- Overrewarded employees may increase inputs (work harder) or rationalize the inequity to reduce tension
- Goal-setting theory developed by and emphasizes the motivational power of specific, challenging goals
- Goals affect performance by directing attention, mobilizing effort, increasing persistence, and encouraging strategy development
- Feedback on goal progress and employee commitment to the goals are important for goal effectiveness
- theory proposed by suggests motivation depends on expectancy (belief effort leads to performance), (belief performance leads to outcomes), and (perceived value of outcomes)
- Motivation can be calculated as
- Individuals make choices among alternatives to maximize their expected satisfaction based on the motivational force of each option
Goal-setting for employee motivation
- Set specific, clear goals (increase sales by 10%) rather than vague or "do your best" goals to provide direction and enable progress tracking
- Ensure goals are challenging but attainable as can inspire higher performance but impossible goals can demotivate
- Example: incrementally increasing production targets from 100 to 110 units per hour rather than jumping to 200
- Provide regular feedback on progress towards goals through metrics (sales figures) or check-ins to allow for goal adjustment and maintain motivation
- Encourage employee participation in goal setting through discussions or suggestions to increase goal commitment and acceptance
- Consider individual differences in goal preference as some prefer (develop a new skill) while others favor (exceed sales targets)
- Use goals to prioritize and coordinate work efforts by aligning individual, team, and department goals with organizational objectives
- Example: tie individual project milestones to company-wide strategic initiatives
- Offer support and resources needed to achieve goals such as training, equipment, or mentorship to enable goal attainment
Expectancy theory in workplace scenarios
- Employees assess their ability to perform a task (expectancy), so provide training and resources to boost confidence and ensure job demands match employee skills
- Example: offer software training before expecting employees to use a new
- Employees consider whether performance will lead to desired outcomes (instrumentality), so clearly link performance to rewards and recognition and follow through on promised rewards
- Example: specify in advance that the top sales performer will earn a bonus and announce the winner publicly
- Employees evaluate the attractiveness of potential outcomes (valence), so offer rewards that are valued by the individual, considering both intrinsic and
- Example: let employees choose between extra vacation days or a gift card for achieving a goal
- Managers can influence motivation by adjusting expectancy (clarify performance expectations), instrumentality (strengthen performance-reward link), and valence (offer desirable rewards)
- Example: explain exactly how many products must be sold to earn each tier of rewards in a sales incentive program
- Employees may choose among behavioral options based on motivational force calculated as , pursuing the option with the highest force
- Example: an employee may choose to focus on individual tasks (high expectancy of completion) rather than team projects (low instrumentality for individual rewards) based on motivational force
Additional Motivation Theories
- proposes that individuals have three innate psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness
- , a sub-theory of self-determination theory, focuses on how external factors affect
- identifies five core job dimensions that influence motivation: skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback
Key Terms to Review (24)
B.F. Skinner: B.F. Skinner was an American psychologist who is considered the father of operant conditioning, a form of learning where behavior is modified through the use of reinforcement and punishment. His work on motivation and behavior had a significant impact on the development of process theories of motivation and recent research in the field.
Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Cognitive Evaluation Theory is a theory of motivation that focuses on the effects of external factors, such as rewards and feedback, on intrinsic motivation. It suggests that when individuals perceive these external factors as controlling their behavior, their intrinsic motivation decreases, whereas when they perceive these factors as supportive of their autonomy, their intrinsic motivation is maintained or enhanced.
CRM System: A CRM (Customer Relationship Management) system is a technology-based approach that helps organizations manage and analyze customer interactions and data throughout the customer lifecycle. It is designed to improve business relationships with customers, streamline processes, and increase profitability.
Edwin Locke: Edwin Locke was an American psychologist known for his groundbreaking work on goal-setting theory, which has become a central tenet of process theories of motivation. His research has significantly influenced our understanding of how goal-setting affects employee motivation and performance.
Equity Theory: Equity theory is a motivation theory that focuses on an individual's sense of fairness and justice in the workplace. It suggests that employees are motivated when they perceive a fair balance between their inputs (e.g., effort, skills, experience) and the outcomes (e.g., pay, recognition, opportunities) they receive, compared to the inputs and outcomes of others.
Expectancy: Expectancy is a core concept in process theories of motivation, which focus on the cognitive factors that influence an individual's choice of behaviors. It refers to an individual's belief that their efforts will lead to a desired outcome or performance level.
Expectancy Theory: Expectancy theory is a motivational model that suggests an individual's motivation to perform a certain behavior is determined by their expectations about the outcomes of that behavior and the perceived value of those outcomes. It focuses on the cognitive processes that drive an individual's choices and efforts to achieve desired goals.
Extrinsic Motivation: Extrinsic motivation refers to the drive to engage in a behavior or activity in order to receive an external reward or avoid punishment, rather than for the inherent enjoyment or satisfaction of the activity itself. This type of motivation is influenced by factors outside the individual, such as financial incentives, social recognition, or the threat of consequences.
Gary Latham: Gary Latham is a renowned Canadian psychologist who has made significant contributions to the field of organizational behavior, particularly in the area of motivation and goal-setting theory. He is known for his extensive research on the impact of goal-setting on employee performance and productivity.
Goal-Setting Theory: Goal-Setting Theory is a motivational framework that emphasizes the importance of setting specific, challenging, and achievable goals to drive individual and organizational performance. It suggests that goals serve as powerful motivators, directing attention, effort, and persistence towards desired outcomes.
Input/output ratio: The input/output ratio refers to the relationship between the resources invested in a process (inputs) and the results achieved (outputs). This concept is crucial in understanding efficiency and productivity within various systems, particularly in how motivation can be influenced by perceived fairness in the effort-reward balance. When individuals assess this ratio, it affects their motivation levels, as they seek to optimize their performance relative to the inputs they provide.
Instrumentality: Instrumentality refers to the degree to which a behavior or action is perceived as a means to an end, rather than an end in itself. It is a central concept in process theories of motivation, which focus on the cognitive processes that influence an individual's choices and behaviors.
Intrinsic Motivation: Intrinsic motivation refers to the internal drive and desire to engage in an activity or behavior for its own sake, without the need for external rewards or incentives. It stems from an individual's inherent interest, enjoyment, and satisfaction derived from the activity itself, rather than from external factors or pressures.
J. Stacy Adams: J. Stacy Adams was an American psychologist who developed the Equity Theory, a prominent process theory of motivation that explains how individuals perceive and respond to inequities in their work environment.
Job Characteristics Model: The Job Characteristics Model is a framework that identifies five core job dimensions - skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback - which impact three critical psychological states, leading to beneficial personal and work outcomes. This model provides insights into how job design can influence employee motivation, satisfaction, and performance.
Learning Goals: Learning goals are specific, measurable, and achievable objectives that students aim to accomplish through the learning process. They provide a clear direction and focus for both students and instructors, guiding the design of instructional activities and assessments.
Operant Conditioning Theory: Operant conditioning theory is a behavioral theory that explains how individuals learn new behaviors through the consequences of their actions. It suggests that behaviors are strengthened or weakened based on the reinforcement or punishment that follows them, ultimately shaping an individual's future actions.
Performance Goals: Performance goals are specific, measurable objectives that individuals or teams aim to achieve within a defined timeframe. These goals are typically tied to an organization's strategic priorities and are used to evaluate employee or team effectiveness and productivity.
Punishment: Punishment is a consequence or sanction imposed on an individual for engaging in undesirable or prohibited behavior. It is a fundamental concept in the process theories of motivation, which seek to understand the factors that drive and influence human behavior.
Reinforcement: Reinforcement is a fundamental concept in the field of motivation, referring to the process of strengthening or increasing the likelihood of a desired behavior through the application of positive or negative consequences. It is a core component of various process theories of motivation, which seek to explain how individuals are motivated to engage in specific actions and behaviors.
Self-Determination Theory: Self-Determination Theory (SDT) is a comprehensive theory of human motivation that focuses on the degree to which an individual's behavior is self-motivated and self-determined. It explores the innate psychological needs that drive individuals to engage in behaviors and the factors that promote or hinder this natural tendency.
Stretch Goals: Stretch goals are ambitious, challenging objectives that push an individual or organization beyond their current capabilities and comfort zones. They represent a desired future state that is significantly more difficult to achieve than typical or expected goals.
Valence: Valence refers to the motivational strength or attractiveness of an outcome or reward. It is a key concept in process theories of motivation, which focus on the cognitive factors that drive and direct human behavior.
Victor Vroom: Victor Vroom is a renowned psychologist who developed the Expectancy Theory, a prominent process theory of motivation. His work has had a significant impact on the understanding of employee motivation and decision-making in the workplace.