🏺Archaeology and Museums Unit 3 – Archaeological Methods: Digging into History

What's This Unit All About?

• Explores the methods archaeologists use to excavate, analyze, and interpret physical remains of past human activities
• Covers the process of archaeological fieldwork from site selection and survey to excavation and recording
• Examines the tools and techniques employed in archaeological digs, including trowels, shovels, brushes, and high-tech equipment like ground-penetrating radar (GPR)
• Discusses the importance of careful documentation and recording of archaeological finds through field notes, photographs, and drawings
• Delves into the post-excavation analysis of artifacts and ecofacts in the lab, involving cleaning, cataloging, and scientific testing
• Addresses the ethical considerations surrounding archaeological work, such as respecting indigenous rights and preserving cultural heritage
• Connects archaeological fieldwork to the presentation of findings in museum displays and exhibitions
• Provides real-world applications and case studies demonstrating the impact of archaeological methods in understanding human history

Key Concepts and Terms

• Stratigraphy: The study of layering in archaeological sites, with newer layers typically found above older ones
• Context: The relationship between artifacts and their surrounding environment, crucial for interpreting the meaning and function of objects
• Provenance: The origin or source of an artifact, including its archaeological context and history of ownership
• Taphonomy: The study of how objects decay and become buried over time, affecting their preservation and interpretation
• Absolute dating: Techniques that provide specific dates for archaeological finds, such as radiocarbon dating and dendrochronology
  • Radiocarbon dating measures the decay of carbon-14 in organic materials to determine their age
  • Dendrochronology analyzes tree ring patterns to date wooden artifacts and structures
• Relative dating: Methods that establish the chronological order of archaeological remains without assigning specific dates, such as stratigraphy and seriation
• Artifact: Any object made, modified, or used by humans, such as tools, pottery, and jewelry
• Ecofact: Organic remains that provide information about past environments and human activities, such as seeds, pollen, and animal bones
• In situ: An artifact or feature found in its original position, undisturbed by later activity or disturbance

Digging Tools and Techniques

• Trowels: Small, flat-bladed hand tools used for delicate excavation work and cleaning artifacts
• Shovels and pickaxes: Larger tools employed for removing bulk soil and debris during the initial stages of excavation
• Brushes and dental picks: Fine tools used for carefully exposing and cleaning fragile artifacts and features
• Sifting screens: Wire mesh screens used to sort through excavated soil, separating artifacts from dirt and debris
• Flotation: A technique that uses water to recover small, lightweight artifacts and ecofacts from soil samples
• Ground-penetrating radar (GPR): A non-invasive method that uses radar pulses to create images of subsurface features and structures
• Magnetometry: A survey technique that detects variations in the earth's magnetic field, indicating the presence of buried features like hearths and kilns
• Aerial photography and satellite imagery: Remote sensing methods used to identify archaeological sites and landscape features from above

Recording and Documenting Finds

• Field notes: Detailed written records of observations, measurements, and interpretations made during excavation
  • Includes descriptions of soil layers, artifacts, and features encountered
  • Documents the location and context of finds using a grid system and elevation measurements
• Photographs: Visual documentation of the excavation process, artifacts, and features
  • Provides a permanent record of the site and its contents before removal
  • Assists in the analysis and interpretation of finds back in the lab
• Drawings and sketches: Scale illustrations of artifacts, features, and site layouts
  • Includes plan views (from above) and profile views (cross-sections) of excavation units
  • Captures details and measurements that may not be apparent in photographs
• 3D scanning and photogrammetry: Advanced techniques for creating detailed digital models of artifacts and sites
  • Allows for non-destructive analysis and sharing of data with researchers and the public
• Database management: The use of specialized software to organize and store excavation data, including artifact catalogs and spatial information
  • Facilitates cross-referencing and querying of data for analysis and interpretation
  • Enables long-term preservation and accessibility of archaeological records

Lab Work and Analysis

• Cleaning and conservation: The process of removing dirt and stabilizing artifacts for long-term preservation
  • Involves the use of specialized tools and techniques, such as ultrasonic cleaners and consolidants
  • Ensures that artifacts can be safely handled, studied, and displayed
• Cataloging and labeling: The systematic recording and identification of artifacts using a standardized numbering system
  • Includes detailed descriptions of each object's material, dimensions, and distinguishing features
  • Allows for efficient storage, retrieval, and cross-referencing of artifacts
• Scientific testing: The application of various analytical techniques to extract information from artifacts and ecofacts
  • Includes microscopic analysis, chemical testing, and biomolecular studies (e.g., ancient DNA and protein analysis)
  • Provides insights into the composition, manufacture, use, and origin of archaeological materials
• Experimental archaeology: The recreation of past technologies, processes, and behaviors to better understand archaeological finds
  • Involves making and using replicas of ancient tools, pottery, and other objects
  • Helps to test hypotheses about the function and efficiency of artifacts and techniques
• Data analysis and interpretation: The process of examining patterns, relationships, and trends in the archaeological record
  • Uses statistical methods, spatial analysis, and comparative studies to draw conclusions about past human activities and societies
  • Integrates multiple lines of evidence, including artifacts, ecofacts, and contextual data, to build comprehensive interpretations

Ethical Considerations in Archaeology

• Indigenous rights and consultation: The need to respect and involve indigenous communities in the archaeological study of their ancestral sites and artifacts
  • Requires obtaining informed consent, sharing decision-making power, and addressing cultural sensitivities
  • Ensures that archaeological research benefits and empowers indigenous peoples
• Looting and the illicit antiquities trade: The problem of unauthorized removal and sale of archaeological artifacts for profit
  • Destroys the context and integrity of archaeological sites, limiting our ability to understand the past
  • Fuels a black market that exploits cultural heritage and funds criminal activities
• Preservation and conservation: The responsibility of archaeologists to protect and maintain archaeological sites and artifacts for future generations
  • Involves implementing measures to prevent damage, decay, and loss of cultural heritage
  • Requires balancing the need for research and public access with the long-term sustainability of archaeological resources
• Public outreach and education: The importance of engaging the public in the archaeological process and sharing the results of research
  • Includes developing accessible and informative exhibits, programs, and publications
  • Promotes appreciation, understanding, and stewardship of cultural heritage among diverse audiences
• Professional standards and codes of ethics: The guidelines and principles that govern the conduct of archaeologists and their work
  • Emphasizes the need for scientific rigor, transparency, and accountability in archaeological research
  • Addresses issues such as data sharing, publication, and the treatment of human remains and sacred objects

Connecting Digs to Museum Displays

• Artifact selection and interpretation: The process of choosing which artifacts to display and how to present them in a museum context
  • Involves considering factors such as representativeness, visual appeal, and educational value
  • Requires developing clear and engaging narratives that communicate the significance of the artifacts and their archaeological context
• Exhibition design and layout: The creation of immersive and informative displays that showcase archaeological finds and their stories
  • Includes the use of various media, such as text panels, graphics, models, and interactive elements
  • Aims to create a coherent and meaningful visitor experience that connects the past to the present
• Conservation and display techniques: The methods used to protect and present archaeological artifacts in a museum setting
  • Involves the use of specialized mounts, cases, and environmental controls to ensure the long-term preservation of objects
  • Requires balancing the need for visibility and access with the fragility and sensitivity of the artifacts
• Interpretive programs and educational resources: The development of activities, tours, and materials that enhance visitor understanding and engagement with archaeological displays
  • Includes guided tours, workshops, lectures, and hands-on experiences that provide deeper insights into the archaeological process and findings
  • Offers opportunities for visitors to ask questions, share their own knowledge, and make personal connections to the past
• Collaboration between archaeologists and museum professionals: The importance of interdisciplinary teamwork in creating effective and accurate archaeological exhibits
  • Involves the exchange of expertise, perspectives, and resources between archaeologists, curators, designers, and educators
  • Ensures that the latest research, best practices, and diverse voices are incorporated into the planning and implementation of museum displays

Real-World Applications and Case Studies

• Pompeii and Herculaneum: The archaeological investigation of two Roman cities buried by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE
  • Showcases the extraordinary preservation of buildings, artifacts, and human remains due to the rapid burial by volcanic ash and debris
  • Provides invaluable insights into daily life, social structure, and cultural practices in ancient Roman society
• Çatalhöyük: A Neolithic settlement in central Turkey, known for its densely packed mud-brick houses and elaborate wall paintings and sculptures
  • Demonstrates the early development of agriculture, animal domestication, and complex social organization in the Near East
  • Highlights the importance of interdisciplinary research, combining archaeology, anthropology, and natural sciences to understand past lifeways
• The Terracotta Army: The discovery of thousands of life-sized clay soldiers, horses, and chariots in the tomb of the first Chinese emperor, Qin Shi Huang
  • Illustrates the power, wealth, and technological sophistication of the Qin Dynasty and its ruler
  • Exemplifies the challenges and rewards of excavating, conserving, and displaying large-scale archaeological finds
• The Rosetta Stone: A granodiorite stele inscribed with a decree in three scripts (hieroglyphic, demotic, and ancient Greek), found in Egypt in 1799
  • Played a crucial role in deciphering ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs, opening up new avenues for understanding Egyptian history and culture
  • Highlights the importance of linguistic and epigraphic analysis in archaeological research, as well as the impact of chance discoveries on our knowledge of the past
• The Sutton Hoo ship burial: The excavation of an Anglo-Saxon cemetery in Suffolk, England, featuring a wealth of high-status grave goods and a ship used as a burial chamber
  • Sheds light on the art, technology, and belief systems of early medieval Britain, as well as the far-reaching trade and cultural connections of the period
  • Illustrates the potential of careful excavation and recording techniques, as well as the use of modern scientific analyses, to extract maximum information from archaeological contexts