🪄Political Philosophy Unit 3 – Medieval Politics: Augustine & Aquinas

Key Figures & Their Times

• Saint Augustine of Hippo (354-430 CE) lived during the decline of the Western Roman Empire and the rise of Christianity
• Augustine witnessed the sack of Rome by the Visigoths in 410 CE, which greatly influenced his political and theological writings
• Saint Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274 CE) was a Dominican friar and influential scholastic philosopher during the High Middle Ages
  • Aquinas studied at the University of Naples and later taught at the University of Paris
• Aquinas lived during a time of intellectual revival in Europe, with the rediscovery of Aristotelian philosophy and the growth of universities
• Both Augustine and Aquinas were influential in shaping medieval Christian thought and political philosophy
• Their ideas on the relationship between church and state, natural law, and the role of government had a lasting impact on Western political thought

Augustine's Political Thought

• Augustine's political philosophy is rooted in his Christian theology and his concept of the "City of God" versus the "City of Man"
  • The City of God represents the spiritual realm and the ultimate goal of human existence, while the City of Man represents the temporal, earthly realm
• Augustine argues that the state's primary purpose is to maintain peace and order, allowing individuals to pursue their spiritual goals
• He believes that political authority is derived from God and that rulers should govern according to divine law and moral principles
• Augustine acknowledges the necessity of the state to restrain evil and promote justice in a fallen world
  • However, he also recognizes the limitations of earthly government and the potential for corruption and abuse of power
• Augustine emphasizes the importance of individual moral responsibility and the role of the church in guiding society towards righteousness
• He argues that true justice can only be achieved in the City of God, and that earthly politics should be subordinate to spiritual concerns

Aquinas' Political Philosophy

• Aquinas' political philosophy builds upon Aristotelian ideas and Christian theology, seeking to reconcile reason and faith
• He argues that human beings are naturally social and political animals, and that the state is a necessary institution for the common good
  • The state's purpose is to promote the virtuous life and create conditions for human flourishing
• Aquinas distinguishes between eternal law (God's perfect plan), natural law (the reflection of eternal law in human reason), human law (the application of natural law in specific societies), and divine law (revealed through scripture)
• He believes that a just government must be based on natural law, which can be discovered through reason and is accessible to all people
• Aquinas supports the idea of a limited monarchy, where the ruler is bound by natural law and the common good
  • He also recognizes the legitimacy of other forms of government, as long as they serve the common good and are based on natural law
• Aquinas emphasizes the importance of the principle of subsidiarity, which holds that decisions should be made at the lowest level possible, with higher levels of government intervening only when necessary

Church vs. State in Medieval Politics

• The relationship between the church and the state was a central issue in medieval political thought
• Augustine and Aquinas both recognized the distinction between spiritual and temporal authority, but had different views on their proper relationship
• Augustine emphasized the supremacy of the church in matters of faith and morality, while acknowledging the necessity of the state in maintaining order
  • He argued that the church should not directly involve itself in political affairs, but should focus on its spiritual mission
• Aquinas sought to balance the roles of church and state, seeing them as complementary institutions with distinct spheres of authority
  • He argued that the church had indirect power over temporal affairs, insofar as they affected the spiritual welfare of the people
• In practice, the relationship between church and state was often contentious, with struggles for power and influence
  • The Investiture Controversy (11th-12th centuries) and the conflict between Pope Boniface VIII and King Philip IV of France (early 14th century) exemplified these tensions
• The medieval period saw the development of the concept of "two swords" – the spiritual sword wielded by the church and the temporal sword wielded by the state – which influenced later theories of church-state relations

Divine Right and Natural Law

• The concepts of divine right and natural law were central to medieval political thought and the legitimation of political authority
• Divine right theory holds that monarchs derive their authority directly from God and are accountable only to Him
  • This idea was used to support the absolute power of kings and to challenge the authority of the church in temporal matters
• Natural law theory, as developed by Aquinas, holds that there is a universal moral order, discoverable through reason, that should guide human law and government
  • Natural law was seen as a higher law that could be used to evaluate the justness of human laws and political systems
• Both divine right and natural law were used to justify the political status quo and to limit the power of the church in political affairs
• However, natural law theory also provided a basis for challenging unjust laws and tyrannical rulers, as it emphasized the common good and the limits of political authority
• The tension between divine right and natural law reflected the broader struggle between the church and the state for supremacy in medieval politics

Influence on Later Political Theory

• The political ideas of Augustine and Aquinas had a significant influence on later political thought in the West
• Augustine's concept of the two cities and his emphasis on the spiritual realm influenced the development of Christian political theology
  • His ideas were later adapted by Protestant reformers such as Martin Luther and John Calvin in their theories of church-state relations
• Aquinas' synthesis of Aristotelian philosophy and Christian theology provided a foundation for the development of scholasticism and natural law theory
  • His ideas on natural law, the common good, and the limits of political authority influenced later thinkers such as Francisco de Vitoria, Hugo Grotius, and John Locke
• The medieval debate over the relationship between church and state continued to shape political thought in the early modern period
  • The Protestant Reformation and the rise of the nation-state challenged the authority of the Catholic Church and led to new theories of sovereignty and religious toleration
• The natural law tradition, as developed by Aquinas, played a key role in the development of international law and theories of human rights
  • Later thinkers such as Grotius and Locke drew on natural law ideas to argue for the existence of universal moral principles and the rights of individuals

Critiques and Controversies

• The political ideas of Augustine and Aquinas have been subject to various critiques and controversies over the centuries
• Some have argued that Augustine's emphasis on the spiritual realm and the sinfulness of human nature leads to a pessimistic view of politics and a lack of concern for social justice
  • Others have criticized his support for the use of force against heretics and his justification of slavery
• Aquinas' attempt to reconcile Aristotelian philosophy with Christian theology has been seen by some as an artificial synthesis that distorts both traditions
  • His views on the subordination of women and the justification of slavery have also been criticized as reflecting the biases of his time
• The idea of natural law has been challenged by those who argue that moral values are relative to particular cultures and historical contexts
  • Critics have also pointed out the difficulty of deriving specific moral and political principles from the abstract concept of natural law
• The medieval conception of the relationship between church and state has been criticized by those who argue for a stricter separation of religion and politics
  • The idea of divine right has been seen as a justification for absolutism and a barrier to the development of democracy and individual rights
• Despite these critiques, the political ideas of Augustine and Aquinas continue to be influential and relevant to contemporary debates in political philosophy and theology

Legacy in Modern Political Thought

• The political ideas of Augustine and Aquinas have had a lasting impact on modern political thought, even as they have been adapted and reinterpreted in new contexts
• Augustine's emphasis on the spiritual dimension of politics and the limitations of earthly government has influenced modern Christian political theology
  • His ideas have been invoked by both conservatives and progressives in debates over the role of religion in public life and the relationship between church and state
• Aquinas' natural law theory has been a key source for the development of modern human rights discourse and international law
  • His ideas on the common good and the limits of political authority have been influential in debates over the scope and purpose of government
• The medieval conception of the relationship between church and state has shaped modern debates over secularism, religious freedom, and the role of religion in politics
  • The idea of the separation of church and state, which emerged in the early modern period, can be seen as a response to the medieval struggle for supremacy between the two powers
• The natural law tradition has been influential in modern Catholic social teaching and in the development of conservative political thought
  • At the same time, the idea of natural rights, which grew out of the natural law tradition, has been a key source for liberal and democratic political theories
• While the specific historical and theological contexts of Augustine and Aquinas' thought are far removed from the modern world, their ideas continue to provide resources for thinking about perennial questions of political philosophy, such as the nature of justice, the common good, and the limits of political authority