7.1 Kuhn's theory of scientific revolutions
5 min read•july 30, 2024
Kuhn's theory shook up how we think about science. Instead of a steady climb up the knowledge ladder, he said science jumps forward in big leaps called shifts. These happen when old ideas can't explain new discoveries.
Kuhn argued that scientists work within a shared set of beliefs and methods called a paradigm. When enough unexplained stuff piles up, it causes a . This leads to a where a new paradigm takes over, changing how scientists see the world.
Kuhn's Theory of Scientific Revolutions
Key Components of Kuhn's Theory
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- Proposes science advances through paradigm shifts () rather than linear knowledge accumulation
- operates within an accepted paradigm, a framework of theories, methods, and assumptions guiding research in a field (Newtonian mechanics)
- Anomalies are observations or experimental results unexplainable by the current paradigm (Mercury's orbit), leading to a crisis
- During a crisis, scientists engage in extraordinary research, exploring alternative theories and approaches to resolve anomalies (Special relativity)
- A scientific revolution occurs when a new paradigm emerges that better explains anomalies and gains widespread acceptance (Einsteinian physics)
- Post-revolution, the new paradigm becomes the foundation for a new period of normal science until new anomalies emerge ()
Social and Psychological Factors in Paradigm Acceptance
- Kuhn emphasized social and psychological factors in paradigm acceptance or rejection, arguing scientific progress is not purely objective or rational
- Scientists' adherence to a paradigm is influenced by factors such as education, research traditions, and professional affiliations (Physics community's initial resistance to quantum mechanics)
- Paradigm shifts often face resistance from the , as they challenge established beliefs and practices (Wegener's continental drift theory)
- The acceptance of a new paradigm may depend on the persuasiveness of its proponents and its ability to gain institutional support (Crick and Watson's advocacy for the double helix model of DNA)
- Kuhn's theory highlights the role of scientific communities in shaping the direction and pace of scientific progress (Delayed acceptance of plate tectonics in the geological community)
Anomalies in Scientific Revolutions
The Role of Anomalies in Triggering Crises
- Anomalies are observations or experimental results unexplainable by the existing paradigm, exposing its limitations (Michelson-Morley experiment)
- Significant anomalies accumulate, creating a crisis within the scientific community as the current paradigm fails to solve problems and guide research effectively (Inability of classical physics to explain blackbody radiation)
- During a crisis, scientists may initially attempt to modify the existing paradigm to accommodate anomalies, but if these efforts fail, the paradigm's credibility is undermined (Ad hoc modifications to the geocentric model)
- Persistent failure of the current paradigm to resolve anomalies motivates scientists to explore alternative theories and approaches (Development of wave-particle duality in response to the ultraviolet catastrophe)
Anomalies as Catalysts for Scientific Change
- The ability of a new paradigm to resolve crisis-triggering anomalies is a key factor in its acceptance and the occurrence of a scientific revolution (Bohr's atomic model explaining the hydrogen spectrum)
- Anomalies force scientists to question fundamental assumptions and methods, considering radically different perspectives (Discovery of radioactivity challenging the immutability of elements)
- Anomalies serve as catalysts for scientific change, exposing the weaknesses of the current paradigm and driving the search for alternatives (Anomalous perihelion precession of Mercury leading to general relativity)
- The resolution of anomalies by a new paradigm demonstrates its superior problem-solving capacity and contributes to its acceptance by the scientific community (Quantum mechanics explaining the photoelectric effect and atomic spectra)
Kuhn's Impact on Scientific Progress
Challenging Traditional Views of Science
- Kuhn's theory challenged the traditional view of science as a cumulative process of knowledge acquisition, proposing instead a model of discontinuous paradigm shifts
- The concept of paradigms highlighted the role of shared assumptions, methods, and values in shaping scientific research and guiding problem-solving within a scientific community (Newtonian mechanics as a paradigm in classical physics)
- Kuhn's emphasis on social and psychological aspects of science challenged the notion of scientific objectivity and raised questions about the nature of scientific truth (Influence of cultural and historical factors on the acceptance of evolutionary theory)
Influence on Philosophy of Science
- Kuhn's theory provided a framework for understanding the historical development of science, explaining how and why scientific theories change over time (Transition from Aristotelian to Newtonian physics)
- The theory influenced philosophy of science, leading to greater recognition of historical, cultural, and social factors in shaping scientific knowledge (Social constructivist approaches to science)
- Kuhn's emphasis on the of paradigms challenged the view of science as a purely rational enterprise (Difficulties in comparing Newtonian and Einsteinian physics)
- The theory sparked debates about the nature of scientific progress, the role of evidence in theory choice, and the relationship between science and reality (Realism versus anti-realism debates in the philosophy of science)
Kuhn's Theory vs Other Models of Change
Popper's Falsificationism
- Popper emphasized falsifiability in scientific theories, arguing science progresses through refuting bold conjectures (Falsification of the steady-state theory of the universe)
- In contrast, Kuhn's theory highlights the role of paradigms in guiding research and resistance to change within normal science (Persistence of the phlogiston theory despite contradictory evidence)
Lakatos' Research Programmes
- Lakatos proposed science progresses through competing research programmes, each with a hard core of central assumptions and a protective belt of auxiliary hypotheses (Newtonian research programme in physics)
- While Lakatos' model allows for gradual change within research programmes, Kuhn's theory emphasizes the discontinuous nature of paradigm shifts (Quantum revolution in physics)
Feyerabend's Epistemological Anarchism
- Feyerabend rejected universal methodological rules in science, arguing any method can be valid in certain contexts (Use of ad hoc hypotheses in the development of quantum mechanics)
- Kuhn's theory, while acknowledging social and psychological factors, still maintains the importance of paradigms in guiding scientific research (Role of the mechanical philosophy in the Scientific Revolution)
Toulmin's Evolutionary Model
- Toulmin proposed an evolutionary view of scientific change, emphasizing gradual adaptation of concepts and theories to new evidence and problems (Gradual acceptance of the germ theory of disease)
- Kuhn's theory, in contrast, highlights the revolutionary nature of paradigm shifts and incommensurability between competing paradigms (Chemical revolution from phlogiston theory to Lavoisier's oxygen theory)
Laudan's Problem-Solving Model
- Laudan argued science progresses by solving empirical and conceptual problems, with theories being accepted or rejected based on problem-solving effectiveness (Acceptance of plate tectonics based on its ability to solve geological problems)
- While Kuhn's theory acknowledges problem-solving importance, it places greater emphasis on paradigms defining what counts as a problem and solution (Paradigm-dependent nature of problem-solving in Ptolemaic versus Copernican astronomy)
Key Terms to Review (15)
Anomaly: An anomaly refers to a deviation from the expected or established norms within scientific research, often highlighting unexpected results that challenge existing theories or paradigms. Anomalies are significant in scientific progress as they can lead to the questioning of current frameworks, prompting scientists to investigate further and potentially revise or replace prevailing theories.
Copernican Revolution: The Copernican Revolution refers to the paradigm shift in astronomy initiated by Nicolaus Copernicus in the 16th century, which proposed that the Sun, rather than the Earth, is at the center of the universe. This change fundamentally altered humanity's understanding of its place in the cosmos, challenging long-held geocentric views and setting the stage for modern scientific inquiry.
Crisis: In the context of scientific revolutions, a crisis refers to a period when existing scientific theories face significant challenges and fail to adequately explain new phenomena or anomalies. During a crisis, the scientific community experiences a loss of confidence in the prevailing paradigm, which can lead to a search for alternative theories and ultimately result in a paradigm shift.
Falsificationism: Falsificationism is the philosophical principle proposed by Karl Popper that asserts a theory or hypothesis can only be considered scientific if it can be tested and potentially falsified. This approach challenges the traditional view of verification and emphasizes that for a statement to have scientific merit, there must be a possibility to prove it false through observation or experiment.
Imre Lakatos: Imre Lakatos was a Hungarian philosopher of science known for his work on the philosophy of mathematics and scientific methodology, particularly his theory of research programs. His ideas connect various aspects of scientific inquiry, addressing how theories are formulated, defended, and replaced in the context of scientific progress and revolutions.
Incommensurability: Incommensurability refers to the idea that certain theories or frameworks are so fundamentally different from one another that they cannot be directly compared or measured using a common standard. This concept highlights the challenges in evaluating competing scientific theories, especially during periods of significant scientific change where paradigms shift and old frameworks lose relevance.
Karl Popper: Karl Popper was a 20th-century philosopher of science known for his contributions to the philosophy of science and the principle of falsifiability. His work challenged the traditional views of scientific method, advocating that scientific theories should be tested and potentially refuted rather than confirmed, emphasizing the dynamic nature of scientific inquiry.
Normal Science: Normal science refers to the regular, day-to-day research and activities conducted by scientists that operate within the established frameworks and theories of a particular scientific paradigm. It is characterized by the puzzle-solving activities that arise from shared assumptions and methodologies within a community, allowing scientists to refine and expand knowledge without challenging the foundational theories. This concept is central to understanding how science progresses gradually through established practices rather than through sudden upheavals.
Paradigm: A paradigm is a set of practices, beliefs, and assumptions that shape how scientists understand and investigate the world. It acts as a framework for scientific inquiry, guiding what questions to ask, what methods to use, and how to interpret results. Paradigms can influence entire fields of study and dictate the norms of scientific practice until they are challenged by anomalies or crises that lead to a scientific revolution.
Paradigm Shift: A paradigm shift refers to a fundamental change in the underlying assumptions and methodologies that define a scientific discipline. This concept is crucial for understanding how scientific fields evolve, as it signifies the transition from one framework of thought to another, often reshaping the way scientific inquiry is conducted and what is considered valid knowledge.
Quantum mechanics: Quantum mechanics is a fundamental theory in physics that describes the physical properties of nature at the scale of atoms and subatomic particles. It introduces concepts such as wave-particle duality and uncertainty, fundamentally changing how we understand the behavior of matter and energy. The theory emphasizes that particles do not have definite positions or velocities but exist in states of probability, which has profound implications for scientific theories and paradigms.
Revolution: In the context of scientific progress, a revolution refers to a fundamental change in the theoretical framework or underlying principles of a scientific discipline. These shifts often arise when existing theories fail to adequately explain observed phenomena, leading to the adoption of new paradigms that radically alter the way scientists understand and investigate the world.
Scientific community: The scientific community refers to the collective group of researchers, scientists, and scholars who engage in the systematic pursuit of knowledge through research and experimentation. This community shares findings, engages in peer review, and builds upon each other’s work to advance scientific understanding. The dynamics within this community play a critical role in shaping the processes of scientific development, including paradigm shifts and revolutions.
Scientific Realism: Scientific realism is the philosophical position that scientific theories aim to describe the world accurately, asserting that unobservable entities posited by these theories, such as electrons or black holes, truly exist. This perspective emphasizes that successful scientific explanations and predictions reflect an objective reality, connecting deeply with various aspects of scientific inquiry and understanding.
Social Constructivism: Social constructivism is a theory that emphasizes the role of social processes and cultural contexts in the construction of knowledge and meaning. This perspective argues that knowledge is not simply discovered, but rather created through interactions within societies, influenced by historical, political, and social factors, which connects closely to various areas of scientific inquiry and understanding.